World Trade Orgtanization and the Ready Made Garment Industry of Bangladesh; a Critical Analysis

Assignment On WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION AND THE READY-MADE GARMENT INDUSTRY OF BANGLADESH: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS Submitted To: Professor Dr. Khondoker Bazlul Hoque Department of International Business University of Dhaka. Submitted By: Sheikh Rashedul Islam Student ID: 80116043 Subject: Theory & Practice of International Business Course No:EIB-510 MBA (Evening Program), Department of International Business University of Dhaka. Submission Date: January 6, 2012 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am heartily thankful to the course teacher of Theory & Practice of International Business, Professor Dr. Khondoker Bazlul Hoque; whose encouragement, guidance and support from the initial stage to the final level enabled me to develop an understanding of the topic and prepare this assignment. I thank all of those who supported me in any respect during the completion of the assignment. Date:January 6, 2012 Table of Contents: Abstract:4 Introduction::5 Textile imports vs exports in Bangladesh6 Data & Simulations:7 Aggregation of GTAP database version 5_1:9 Ready made garments MFA export tax equivalent:9 Average import-weighed tariff in Bangladesh:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 11 RESULTS :12 Experiment 1: ABOLITION OF MFA QUOTAS:13 Conclusion:17 Reference:18 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION AND THE READYMADE GARMENT INDUSTRY OF BANGLADESH: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS ABSTRACT Since the 1980s the export oriented readymade garment (RMG) industry of Bangladesh has experienced an extraordinary evolution: This trend was accompanied by a tremendous rise in the export share from 0. 2% in 1980 to nearly 75% in 1997-98. High concentration on low value-added products, strong dependence on imported textiles and high regional concentration of exports characterize Bangladesh’s RMG sector. The main policy framework is given by the WTO’s Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) which follows the former Multifibre Arrangement (MFA). By 2005, the sector is to be fully integrated into GATT rules and existing quotas currently hampering trade will come to an end. Thus, it can be expected that worldwide trade in textile and clothing will expand and that production in now discriminated regions will increase. However, existing import tariffs for textiles, strongly supported by local textile producers, hinder the current RMG production in Bangladesh. In this paper we will discuss how future policy developments may affect the RMG sector of Bangladesh. For the analysis we used the comparative static general equilibrium model GTAP. In this model quotas resulting from the MFA agreement are included as export tax equivalents. Compared to China and India, Bangladesh has less restricted access to the most important markets the EU and USA. The experiments simulate a full phase-out of the MFA quotas, as well as a reduction of import tariffs in the textile and clothing sector. First results indicate an increase in RMG production in Bangladesh, but compared to China and particularly India growth rates are quite modest. It is shown that the effects resulting from textiles imports tariff reduction in Bangladesh itself are stronger than the MFA phase out. This demonstrates the importance of the existing tariff regime for textiles. Furthermore it can be shown that RMG imports from Bangladesh to NAFTA are reduced while China and especially India significantly expands their exports to this region. Although Bangladesh can augment its RMG exports on the second large market, the EU, again it looses in competitiveness against China and India. INTRODUCTION The export oriented readymade garment (RMG) industry of Bangladesh has experienced an extraordinary evolution: having started with 9 enterprises in the late seventies, the number has now grown to over 3000. This trend was accompanied by a tremendous rise in the export share from 0. 2% in 1980 to over 80% in 1998 (WTO, 2002 and figure 1). With a value of about 4 billion US$, the RMG industry has clearly become the dominant source for Bangladesh’s export earnings. Figure 1: Textile imports and RMG exports of Bangladesh Source: GTAP v5_1. However, Bangladesh’s RMG sector is characterized by some unfavourable circumstances: the sector highly depends on imported fabrics. In 115 out of 127 categories of fabrics the share of imports exceeds 70% (CPD, 1999). Figure 1 shows that over the years about half the export earnings were spent on textile imports. Since natural conditions in Bangladesh hardly allow for a huge expansion of cotton production, this problem will continue in the future. Additionally, the added value in the apparel sector is quite low. The sourcing of textiles for the Bangladesh RMG industry has changed dramatically over the last 20 years, as can be seen from figure 2. In the 1980s, the dominant suppliers were the high-income Asian countries, led by Japan with an import share of more than 40%, and followed by Korea with a share of about 10%. Until the mid 1990s, Korea had taken over the position of Japan as the leading source for textile imports, with a share of around 30%. Since then, India has expanded its textile imports into Bangladesh, and more recently China has started to assume an increasing importance. By 1998, 35% of textile imports were sourced from China and about 20% from India. Figure 2: Composition of textile imports of Bangladesh [pic] Source: GTAP v5_1. Note: Last figures for India are 1997 data. Figure 3: Bangladesh exports of clothing to USA and EU 1980-1998 (in billion US$) [pic] Source: GTAP v5_1. Bangladesh’s RMG sector is concentrated both in regards to export products and export markets: the concentration of products is much higher than for India and China, two important competitors on international markets, while 90% of Bangladesh RMG exports are going to two markets, the EU and the USA (see figure 3). The main policy framework is given by the WTO’s Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) which follows the former Multifibre Arrangement (MFA). By 2005, the sector is to be fully integrated into GATT rules and existing quotas currently hampering trade will come to an end. Bangladesh faces quota in two markets, the USA and Canada. Due to the Generalised System of Preference (GPS) the important EU market provides no quota restrictions for Bangladesh’s textile and clothing products. With respect to other competitors on this market like India and Sri Lanka this presents a comparative advantage. Nevertheless, some restrictions resulting from the Rules of Origin also apply for imports from Bangladesh. In the near future, the EU market for textile and clothing will not only be affected by changes in the ATC agreement, but by bilateral agreements connected to further enlargement processes of the EU as well as developments with regard to the EU? s specific regional preferences. This will particularly influence the market access of the Central and Eastern European countries and Turkey. In general, the abolition of textiles and clothing quotas will initiate an expanded worldwide trade and production in now discriminated regions. This of course will lead to country specific effects depending on regional idiosyncrasies. Concerning Bangladesh existing import tariffs for textiles, strongly supported by local textile producers, hinder the current RMG production in Bangladesh. In the recent past the pure existence as well as the rate of these tariffs has been under heavy discussion in Bangladesh (e. g. The Independent, 2002). Therefore, we will discuss how different future policy developments may affect the RMG sector of Bangladesh. This includes the changes in the global ATC agreement, further developments on the huge import market EU as well as changes in the national tariff regime of Bangladesh. DATA and SIMULATIONS The analysis was done using the comparative static general equilibrium model GTAP. Since the GTAP framework is well known and documented (see Hertel, 1997 and http://www. gtap. agecon. purdue. edu), we will not elaborate on its theoretical background here. However, it is important to note that import barriers resulting from the ATC agreement are calculated into tariff equivalents (see Francois & Spinanger, 2002 and table 2). For the experiments the GTAP database version 5. 1 was used, which contains 66 countries and 57 sectors. The selected aggregation can be obtained from 1. Table 1: Aggregation of GTAP database version 5_1 |Regions |Sectors | |Bangladesh |Rice paddy rice, processed rice | |China |Other Grains wheat, cereal grains | |(incl. HongKong) |Fibres plant-based fibres | |India |OthCrop oilseeds, sugar crops, other crops, vegetables, fruits and nuts | |High-income Asia (HincAsia) |Ofood raw milk, cattle, sheep, goats & horses, other animal products, vegetable oils and fats, | |Other Asia (OthAsia) |dairy products, bovine cattle, sheep & goat meat products, other meat products, wool, silk-worm | |USA |cocoons, beverages and tobacco products, food products | |Canada (CAN) |Extract fishing, forestry, coal, oil, minerals, gas | |Mexico & Central America |Tex textiles | |(CentrAm) |Wap wearing apparel | |European Union (EU) |Lea leather products | |Turkey |LabintMan motor vehicles & parts, chemicals, wood products, paper products, publishing, | |Central and Eastern Europe |petroleum, coal products, mineral roducts, metals, metal products, | |(CEEC) |CapIntMan transport equipment, electronic equipment, machinery & equipment, ferrous metals, other| |Rest of the World (ROW) |manufactures | | |Svces electricity, con struction, gas manufacture, trade, transport, distribution, water, | | |communication, financial services, insurance, business recreational services, public | | |administration & defence, education, health, dwellings | If exports are constrained under the MFA export quota regime, there are lower exports and higher prices than in a free-trade situation. The effects of this constraint can be measured in terms of an implicit export tax or tariff equivalent of the quota rent. Table 2 presents such estimates (from the GTAP v5_1 database) for the wearing apparel industry. [1] The table indicates that the Multi-Fibre-Agreement for wearing apparel is less restrictive for Bangladesh than it is for its main competitors China and India. Table 2: Ready made garments MFA export tax equivalent (million US$, 1997 and as % of domestic market value of exporting region)* ( from ( to |USA |Canada |EU |All |Total | | | | | |other countries | | |Bangladesh |103 |5 |80 |2 |190 | | |9% |9% |8% |5% |8% | | China (incl. HongKong) |1974 |166 |848 |72 |3059 | | |31% |34% |14% |2% |10% | |India |460 |46 |290 |12 |807 | | |52% |52% |18% |2% |24% | |High-income Asia |68 |4 |2 |0 |74 | |2% |2% |0% |0% |1% | |Other Asia |563 |29 |281 |8 |880 | | |10% |10% |7% |1% |7% | |Mexico & Central America |277 |3 |7 |0 |287 | | |3% |4% |5% |0% |3% | |Turkey |24 |1 |0 |0 |25 | | |5% |5% |0% |0% |1% | |Central and Eastern Europe |12 |1 |0 |0 |13 | | |5% |5% |0% |0% |0% | |All other countries |83 |3 |34 |1 |121 | | |2% |3% |0% |0% |1% | |Total |3563 |257 |1542 |94 |5457 | Source: GTAP v5_1. * Not all countries are facing quotas on each export market. The tariff equivalents described here result from the estimation of rents and thus include not only direct but also indirect effects originating from the ATC agreement. The estimated value of the export tax equivalent for Bangladesh is 190 million US$ in 1997, which amounts to 8% of the domestic value of total RMG exports. Exports to the North American markets from China and India apparently face higher quota restrictions, as the estimated ad-valorem tariff equivalent of the quota shows. For example, Indian exports to the USA would be more than 50% cheaper without the quota. The current RMG production in Bangladesh is affected not only by export measures but also by existing import tariffs. Although the country has xperienced some liberalization in the recent past, tariffs for intermediate inputs and especially textiles are high compared to other products entering Bangladesh (see table 3). In international comparison Bangladesh levies relatively high import taxes on its textile impor ts (table 4). Tariffs of more than 30% of the import value are not uncommon. On (trade-weighted) average, textile imports into Bangladesh face a tariff equivalent of 29%, which is three times as high as the world average. According to the GTAP database, the tariffs on textiles have contributed approximately 420 million US$ to tax revenues in Bangladesh. Table 3: Average import-weighed tariff in Bangladesh, fiscal year 1991-99 Import categories |1991 |1995 |1999 | |Intermediate inputs |24. 1 |26. 3 |21. 5 | |Capital goods |18. 7 |12. 5 |8. 57 | |Final consumer goods |47. 3 |26. 4 |11. 2 | |All imports |24. 1 |20. 8 |14. 68 | Source: WTO (2002) after NBR. Table 4: Ad valorem tariff equivalent for textiles (in %) |( from ( to |Bangladesh |Average all import destinations | |Bangladesh |n. a. |11 | |China (incl. HongKong) |36 |12 | |India |10 |10 | |High-income Asia |33 |18 | |Other Asia |20 |11 | |USA |32 |8 | |Canada |n. a. |2 | |Mexico & Central America |n. a. |8 |European Union |32 |5 | |Turkey |n. a. |12 | |Central and Eastern Europe |n. a. |10 | |Rest of the World |34 |10 | |Total |29 |10 | Note:Calculated from value of imports at domestic market prices over value of imports c. i. f. , GTAP v. 5_1. n. a. : not available or import flow negligible. Since the RMG sector of Bangladesh is restricted on the export side as well as on the imports the simulations analyzed in this paper include two experiments. Experiment 1 (EXP 1) focuses on the export market. It simulates firstly a complete phase-out of the ATC agreement and secondly specific relevant developments on the EU market such as the Eastern Enlargement and a preferential agreement with Turkey. Experiment 2 (EXP 2) additionally describes a reduction of import tariffs in the textile sector of Bangladesh by 20%. RESULTS Experiment 1: ABOLITION OF MFA QUOTAS What can be expected for Bangladesh if all quota restrictions on textiles and garments trade are abolished by December 31st, 2004, as foreseen in the ATC? The main competitors of Bangladesh’s RMG sector, located in India and China, are relatively more restricted by the ATC agreement than Bangladesh’s producers. On the North American markets, Mexico and Central American countries have increased their market positions over Bangladesh as a result of closer regional integration in the Americas. On the European markets, exports from Turkey and Central and Eastern European countries are competing with exports from Bangladesh. The Eastern enlargement and trade preferences for Turkey imply that the GSP (and Everything but Arms, EBA) preferences supporting Bangladesh on the EU market are losing their importance. In order to capture the latter issue we incorporated the enlargement of the EU as well as zero-tariff access to the EU for Turkish producers in our simulation. Table 5: The MFA abolition experiment | |(1) |(2) |(3) |(4) | | |Average export |Export volumes |Share world export |Share world export | | |price | |volumes 1997 |volumes post-MFA | |Bangladesh |-7% |0% |2% |2% | |China (incl. HongKong) |-11% |60% |24% |33% | |India |-21% |267% |3% |10% | |High-income Asia |-1% |-28% |5% |3% | |Other Asia |-6% |1% |10% |9% | |Mexico & Central America |-4% |-42% |7% |3% | |Turkey |1% |40% |3% |4% | |Central and Eastern Europe |1% |70% |5% |7% | Table 5 summarizes the effects of a MFA phase out on the RMG world market. Obviously, the highly quota constrained exporters from India and China are able to dramatically expand their exports. In the case of China, the model predicts a 60% increase in export volumes. However, exporters now face a price that is on average 11% lower. [2] For India the picture is even more impressive, as exports are simulated to expand by more than 260%, albeit at 20% lower prices. Bangladesh is simulated to maintain its export volumes, but would face a 7% lower price. Columns (3) and (4) in the table compare current world market shares in RMG with post-MFA shares. Clearly, China and India are increasing their world market shares. Table 6: MFA phase out: Effects on main markets, change in export volumes by source and destination (percentage change relative to base 1997) |( from ( to |USA |Canada |EU |of which EU preference | | | | | |effect | |Bangladesh |-21 |-33 |26 |-12 | |China (incl. HongKong) |199 |194 |67 |-19 | |India |752 |632 |80 |-19 | |High-income Asia |-51 |-59 |-30 |-12 | |Other Asia |-13 |-25 |23 |-16 | |Mexico & Central America |-44 |-50 |15 |-16 | |Turkey |-45 |-53 |72 |96 | |Central and Eastern Europe |-43 |-51 |81 |106 | Table 6 focuses on the main export markets. Obviously, Bangladesh is losing ground in North American markets, where China and India are out-competing all other suppliers, including Mexico and Central America. Only on the European market does Bangladesh have positive growth rates. The granting of preferences to suppliers from CEEC countries and from Turkey enables those regions to double their sales volumes to the EU, which leads to a diversion of imports from all other sources. Experiment 2: LOWER TEXTILE TARIFFS IN BANGLADESH. The phase-out of the MFA is an external event that Bangladesh producers and policymakers will have to deal with in some way, but on which they have little influence. In contrast, there are also a number of national policy instruments available that Bangladesh could use to further its RMG industry. One of these instruments is the lowering of import taxes on textiles. It has been seen in section 2 that import barriers on textiles – a vital input in RMG – are relatively high in Bangladesh. The tariffs lead to an average increase of the price of imported textiles by about 30%. Clearly, a lower tariff would reduce the cost of imported textiles to the Bangladesh RMG industry, and this will decrease production costs in the RMG sector. Table 7 reports the effects on RMG and textiles output in case of a unilateral 20% lowering of all import tariffs on textiles (i. e. rom average 29% to average 23%, but with variation according to source region). Table 7: Output changes in Bangladesh, percent changes relative to base | |MFA phase out |lower textile tariffs |MFA phase out + lower | | | | |textile tariffs | |Fibres |5. 1 |-0. 8 |4. 3 | |Textile s |6. 6 |-0. 7 |6. 0 | |Wearing apparel |0. 2 |7. 3 |7. 6 | Table 8: Decomposition of export growth effects Indicator | | |import price textiles |-4. 5% | |price domestic textiles |-0. 2% | |share of imports |0. 3% | |composite price textiles |-1. 5% | |average price other inputs |0. 5% |cost share textiles |0. 7% | |supply price RMG |-0. 9% | |elasticity of substitution domestic/foreign WAP at the importer side |8. 8 | |change in exports |7. 9% | While expansion of RMG production and exports under the MFA phase-out is rather limited, the unilateral reduction of textile import tariffs has notable positive effects on output and trade. In fact, the 20% tariff cut results in a simulated RMG output growth of more than 7%. Not surprisingly, this output effect turns out to be mainly export driven. The lower price for imported textiles in the wake of the tariff reduction drives down the price for textiles that the RMG industry in Bangladesh uses. Table 8 summarizes the important effects. The 4. 5% lower price for imported textiles is combined with a very slight drop of domestic textile prices to yield a drop of the composite textiles price by -1. 5%. Given the large 70% cost share of textiles in RMG production, the supply price of RMG products can drop by -0. 9%. This drop is sufficient to lead importers to substitute towards Bangladesh RMG products. The GTAP model has an Armington import structure with an elasticity of substitution between domestic and foreign RMG varieties equal to 8. for all importers such that the substitution effect alone results in an almost 8% rise of Bangladesh RMG exports. Since Bangladesh is a small player on global RMG markets (market share around 1%), global import levels are not affected by Bangladesh’s cheaper supplies. The conclusion from this exercise is that lowering tariffs on textile imports does indeed boost the competitiveness of the Bangladesh RMG industry. At the same time, the domestic textiles industry experiences some competition from abroad, resulting in lower domestic textile prices and a slight drop in output, but this is more than compensated by increased export earnings in the RMG industry. Figure 4: Welfare effects (equivalent variation, million 1997 US$) [pic] The equivalent variation welfare indicator in Figure 4 provides a summary of effects on the total economy. According to this welfare measure, the main beneficiary of the MFA phase-out is the USA. The importing regions Canada and the EU also benefit, as do India, China and Central and Eastern Europe and Turkey. The latter two regions mainly due to the EU-preference effect. This picture makes clear why not all countries always support the abolition of the MFA. For Bangladesh a slight negative welfare effect of the MFA phase can be observed. The unilateral reduction of textiles tariffs somewhat improves this outcome, but is insufficient to tip the balance. Table 9: Welfare analysis: allocative and terms-of-trade effects, million US$ |MFA phase out |MFA phase out and lower Bangladesh | | | |textile tariffs | | |allocative |terms-of-trade |allocative effects|terms-of-trade | | |effects |effects | |effects | |Bangladesh |-11 |-180 |52 |-338 | |China |3108 |-4676 |3107 |-2715 | |India |2063 |-1806 |2061 |-393 | |High-income Asia |-131 |-168 |-131 |-501 | |Other Asia |74 |-853 |73 |-1348 | |USA |1765 |6350 |1767 |5127 | |Canada |421 |423 |422 |390 | |Mexico & Central America |-211 |-217 |-211 |-1178 | |European Union |707 |50 |716 |16 | |Turkey |163 72 |162 |659 | |Central and Eastern Europe |438 |96 |437 |1286 | |ROW |-387 |-62 |-387 |-981 | Table 9 explains the reason for this negative outcome. The terms of trade for Bangladesh – and indeed for all the quota-restricted exporters – are negatively affected as world prices for garments drop. In contrast to, for example, India, the terms-of trade loss is not compensated by allocative gains in Bangladesh. Closer inspection of the underlying data shows that the negative allocative result in the MFA phase-out scenario is mainly due to the expansion of the domestic textiles industry which is currently subsidized. Expansion of a subsidized activity receives a negative welfare evaluation, because it pulls resources into an activity that could be more effectively used elsewhere in the economy. With lower textiles tariffs, the domestic textiles industry shrinks somewhat and the negative allocative effect is turned in to an allocative gain, as less subsidization is required. CONCLUSIONS The phase out of the MFA changes global patterns of trade. India and China are the biggest winners in terms of output and export growth. In terms of welfare, the importing countries gain most, as the import prices drop. At the same time, this means terms of trade loss for exporters. Bangladesh can only mildly benefit from the MFA phase-out, and loses ground on North American markets. Since the EU grants preferences to CEECs and Turkey, Bangladesh exporters face increasing competition on the EU market. On balance output volumes are expected to be unchanged from Bangladesh, implying a drop in market share in the expanding RMG market. A counteracting policy option for Bangladesh is the unilateral lowering of import tariffs on textiles. This reduces costs to the RMG industry and improves exports through lower supply prices. Macro-economically, increased export revenues easily compensate the loss in tariff revenues. Reference: Source: Office of Textiles and Apparel, United States Department of Commerce. Abbreviations: MMF: man-made fibre; S/V: silk and vegetable; MB: man and boy; WG: woman and girl. ———————– [1]

Assessment of Learning Essay

Assessment for Learning and Pupils with Special Educational Needs The aim of this paper is to provide a summary of the key issues that emerged during the Agency project Assessment in Inclusive Settings in relation to the application of the concept of Assessment for Learning to pupils with special educational needs (SEN). A significant aspect of inclusive assessment in practice that emerged from the on-going discussions with Project Experts was the concept of Assessment for Learning. References to this concept can be found in the majority of project Country Reports on national assessment systems (www.european-agency. org /site/themes/assessment/index. shtml). Within these Country Reports, Assessment for Learning can be seen as a ‘qualitative’ type of assessment procedures. This type of assessment – also referred to as ‘formative’ or ‘on-going’ assessment – is usually carried out in classrooms by class teachers and professionals that work with the class teacher. It usually refers to assessment procedures that inform teachers about pupils’ learning and guides them in planning the next steps in teaching. As a central task within the second phase of the Agency project, a decision was taken to explore in more depth the concept of Assessment for Learning and how this can be applied to assessment in inclusive settings. Two activities were conducted: – A review of available literature considering the concept. This was a short review of English language materials (please see the reference list at the end of this document); – Discussions with all Project Experts. Information from the initial review of available literature was presented to Project Experts as a stimulus for their discussions. This led to the Experts being asked to reflect on the differences between Assessment for Learning (formative, ongoing assessment) and Assessment of Learning (summative assessment) using the following parameters: PARAMETERS PURPOSE GOALS ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING Supporting Learning Accountability (linked to predetermined standards) Informs teaching and learning Promotes further steps in learning Focuses on improving Develops pupils’ skills of reflection Collection of information about what has been achieved (a record of marks) Compares with  targets that have been pre-established. Focuses on achievement www. european-agency. org 1 PARAMETERS ACTORS WHEN TOOLS ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING Teachers Pupils Parents Peers Other school professionals On-going ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING Teachers External practitioners At fixed and pre-determined times Discussions, observations, self- Tests, drilling, grading, marking, assessment, peer-assessment, questioning, observation teacher debate, comment-only, dialogue, questioning, feedback, no-grading, portfolio, individual education plan . Adapted from Harlen (2007a) The key difference between Assessment for Learning and Assessment of Learning can be identified as the purpose for which teachers and other professionals gather evidence of learning. Although some tools may be the same (e. g. questioning) the key issues emerging from the feedback provided by Project Experts indicated that it is necessary to keep in mind that: – Assessment for Learning aims at improving learning; Assessment of Learning aims at ensuring accountability (of schools and teachers). – Assessment for Learning explores the potential for learning and indicates the next step to be taken in order to promote learning and focuses upon the dynamics of teaching and learning); Assessment of Learning shows what has been already achieved, memorised and absorbed and provides a snapshot of the current situation. The actors involved in Assessment for Learning are able to provide insights into progress that a pupil has achieved and how the school contributed to this development; the actors involved in Assessment of Learning include professionals who are external to the school situation (e. g. inspectors) and may be required to provide a picture of a school at a particular point in time, but they may not always know the school context and life in the necessary detail to provide insights into pupil learning. Assessment for Learning and Pupils with SEN? The concept of providing feedback to pupils about their learning is the crucial element in understanding the potential difference between the use of the term Assessment for Learning generally by educators – as it is most often used for example within the project Country Reports – and the use of the term within a research context. Overall, Assessment for Learning is concerned with collecting evidence about learning that is used to adapt teaching and plan next steps in learning. Evidence 2 www. european-agency. org about learning is crucial as it indicates if there has been a shift (or not) in a pupil’s learning progress and possibly learning processes. On the basis of such evidence, teachers can formulate targets/goals and are able to provide pupils with feedback about their learning (see Hattie and Timperly, 2007) clearly indicating to a pupil not just what they have learned, but also giving them information on how they may have learned it and how best they can learn in the future. The feedback provided during Assessment for Learning contributes to a pupils’ reflection on their own learning. Within the research literature reviewed for this investigation, Assessment for Learning is often described as involving this form of self-reflection, or more specifically, as a means by which pupils reflect on their own learning as they are engaged in an interactive ‘feedback loop’ with their teachers. The essential aim of employing the ‘feedback loop’ within Assessment for Learning is to promote pupils’ meta-cognition; that is their own understanding of not just what they learn, but how they learn and can learn in the best way. This is clearly presented by the Assessment Reform Group (2002) who describe Assessment for Learning as: †¦ the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best to get there. (Assessment Reform Group, p. 2) Assessment for Learning within this research-based context involves issues of self-reflection and self-assessment that develops a pupils’ own understanding of how learning is taking place and how it can be developed. This is particularly relevant as Assessment for Learning emphasises assessment as a process of meta-cognition (see for example the notion of Assessment as Learning in Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education, 2006). These notions, however, are not always the main focus when the concept of Assessment for Learning is used more generally (that is as in the project Country Reports). Meijer (2003) suggests that what is good for pupils with special educational needs is also good for all pupils and this maxim is one that has been considered throughout the entire Agency Assessment project. However, when considering the researchgenerated concept of Assessment for Learning, it has to be recognised that the work has been conducted in relation to pupils without SEN. Within the research work on Assessment for Learning considered in the literature review (Lynn and et al. , 1997; Black and Wiliam, 1998), issues around Assessment for Learning and pupils with SEN are only very marginally dealt with. Consequently, a decision was taken to actively explore within the Agency Assessment project the relevance of the research-based concept of Assessment for Learning for the learning of pupils with SEN along with the possible implications for assessment procedures used by teachers, school managers, parents and even www. european-agency. org 3  pupils themselves. Within the Agency Assessment project discussions therefore, the central question emerged as being is what is good for most pupils also good for pupils with SEN? The discussions with project experts essentially explored if the research concept of Assessment for Learning was valid for pupils with SEN. Two main areas were debated by Project Experts: 1. Does Assessment for Learning mean the same thing for pupils with and without SEN? Are same principles applied? 2. Are there differences in the use of Assessment for Learning for pupils with and without SEN? If so what are these differences for pupils, teachers, school managers and educational practice? Assessment for Learning – a relevant concept The most main outcome emerging from the discussions of the Project Experts is the agreement that Assessment for Learning is a significant element in successful teaching and learning of teaching with all pupils, including those with SEN. In essence, the critical question to ask is not whether Assessment for Learning can be applied to pupils with special educational needs, but rather how it can be applied. However, one potential area of concern was highlighted by project experts in relation to using Assessment for Learning with pupils with the most severe needs. In particular, engaging pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties in the ‘feedback loop’ was seen as being challenging. However, project experts’ reflections on this potential difficulty can be summed up as follows: †¦ students with profound difficulties do not need different assessment systems, but only different methods/tools of assessment. Assessment for Learning – methods and tools In relation to tools for Assessment for Learning, Project Experts’ feedback indicates that many Assessment for Learning approaches (such as individualised observation, portfolios and diaries) have been extensively used in special needs education settings for some considerable time. In relation to other potential methods and tools it is necessary to underline the fact that Assessment for Learning methods and tools can be used with pupils with SEN providing that they are modified and adjusted (accommodated) to meet the needs of the individual pupil. 4 www. european-agency. org Teacher observation was seen by Project Experts as a main method for gathering Assessment for Learning information. This approach is seen as particularly relevant for pupils with SEN as it may be the only method available to gather information about the learning of pupils who use non- or pre-verbal forms of communication. However, the Project Experts’ inputs suggested that teachers needed to be given more guidance by specialists in order to improve their skills in observation. Specifically, project experts indicated that more guidance should be given to develop more individualised methods of observation of pupils with SEN. Some suggestions included the use of videos as helpful tools to collect evidence of learning for students with profound learning difficulties and to provide teachers with the best opportunities to reflect upon assessment and discuss the evidence with their colleagues. Questioning is often a crucial part of the teacher pupil interaction that occurs in the Assessment for Learning ‘feedback loop’. Project Experts indicated that questioning pupils with SEN is also possible – and necessary – but only: †¦ if the questions are framed in a way that allows pupils to have enough time to answer (the ‘wait time’) and if different stimuli to support questions (e. g. visual versus verbal stimuli) and ways of responding (e. g. eye contact) are considered †¦ In addition, Project Experts also indicated that the portfolio – if complemented with other information, for example the pupil’s IEP or specialist therapeutic programmes – could be a tool for dialogue with other professionals and parents. Finally, Project Experts expressed their view that approaches that encourage selfassessment and particularly self-reflection are tools within Assessment for Learning provided that they are adequately adapted and modified to meet the needs of individual pupils. The reinforcement of self-assessment skills was seen as a crucial goal for pupils with severe learning difficulties whose personal learning targets may often include autonomy and independence. These competences are fundamental skills clearly supported by the development of self-reflection and meta-cognitive skills (Porter et al., 2000). Assessment for Learning – implications for school managers All Project Experts agreed on the important role played by school managers in creating the opportunities for teachers to discuss and reflect on assessment issues and for parents to participate in the process of assessment of their children. There is a need for: †¦ head and deputy school managers [to] monitor planning and assessment †¦ more home/school diaries, informal chats reviews, phone calls. www. european-agency. org 5. School managers are crucial actors for the development of an organisational ethos that recognises pupils’ involvement as fundamental (Porter, Robertson and Hayhoe, 2000). Without respect for pupils’ wishes and a general school philosophy that supports pupil participation, Assessment for Learning is less likely to develop. Overall, as far as school managers are concerned, Project Experts across different Agency countries indicated there is a real need for them to provide all teachers with more formal time to reflect on their use of assessment in order that they can successfully engage in Assessment for Learning processes with pupils. Conclusions All of the contributions from the project experts were unanimous: the concept of Assessment for Learning as currently understood by countries, but – most importantly for this debate – also as described in the research literature is valid for all pupils: including those with SEN. From the discussions held with Project Experts, this proposition can be developed further: Assessment for Learning concerns all pupils and from an inclusive perspective there should not be any need to differentiate between pupils with or without SEN, but rather to differentiate classroom practice to meet all pupils’ requirements. Building on this assertion, four main findings can be highlighted: 1. The same principles of Assessment for Learning apply to pupils with or without SEN. 2. The only difference in Assessment for Learning between pupils with and without special educational needs is essentially in the type of tools and the assessment/ communication methods used by teachers. 3. The only area of concern relating to Assessment for Learning being applied to pupils with SEN relates to the notion of Assessment for Learning as a tool for pupils’ reflection on their own learning (i. e. the interaction between the pupil and teacher during the ‘feedback loop’). For pupils who use alternative forms of communication this feedback process cannot operate in the ‘traditional’ language based way. In this case, a more individualised approach, new assessment tools and a variety of means for teacher/pupil interaction need to be explored and implemented; for example close observation in structured situations which allows teachers to assess pupils’ likes/dislikes and so forth. 4. Many methods and tools of Assessment for Learning have been developed within special needs education settings and could be transferred into mainstream  settings to improve educational provision for all pupils. In summary, Assessment for Learning can and should be applied to all pupils, including those with SEN, providing that the relevant and necessary changes and 6 www. european-agency. org modifications are made in order to ensure the individual pupil’s full participation in the assessment process. It is clear that the discussions relating to the concept of Assessment for Learning within the remit of the Agency Assessment project have only provided a starting point. More detailed examination – research and also the wider dissemination of examples of good practice in applying Assessment for Learning to meet the needs of pupils with SEN – is needed in the future. It is hoped however, that the reflections from project experts as well as their assertion of the usefulness of the concept in supporting the learning processes of all pupils will inform the work and decision making of educational policy makers and practitioners across Europe. For the full text of this paper – including direct quotations from Project Experts relating to the key findings – please go to: http://www. european-agency. org/site/themes/assessment/index. shtml www. european-agency. org 7 References Assessment Reform Group (1999) Assessment for Learning: Beyond the Black Box. Cambridge: University of Cambridge School of Education. Assessment Reform Group (2002) Assessment for Learning: 10 principles. Research-based principles to guide classroom practice. Nuffield Foundation: Electronic source available online at: http://www. qca.org. uk/libraryAssets/media/ 4031_afl_principles. pdf (Last accessed November 2008). Black, P. and William, D. (2002) Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment London: King’s College. Harlen, W. (2007a) Assessment of Learning. London: Sage. Harlen, W. (2007b) The Quality of Learning: assessment alternatives for primary education. (Primary Review Research Survey 3/4). Cambridge: University of Cambridge. Hattie, J. & Timperly, H. (2007) The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, Vol. 77, N. 1, pp. 81-112. Lynn, S. F. and et al. (1997) ‘Effects of task-focused goals on low-achieving students with and without learning disabilities’ American Educational Research Journal, 34, 513-543. Meijer, C. J. W. (ed. ) (2003) Inclusive Education and Classroom Practices. Middelfart: European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education. Porter, J. , Robertson, C. and Hayhoe, H. (eds. ) (2000) Classroom Assessment for Students with Learning Difficulties/Disabilities. Birmingham: Qualifications & Curriculum Authority. William, D. (2007) Assessment for learning: why, what and how. London: Institute of Education, University of London.William, D. and Leahy, S. (2007) ‘A theoretical foundation for formative assessment’. In J. McMillan, H. (ed. ) Formative Classroom Assessment: Theory into Practice (pp. 29-42). New York: Teachers College Press. Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education, (ed. ) (2006) Rethinking Classroom Assessment with Purpose in Mind. Crown Right of the Government of Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory: Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education. 8 www. european-agency. org.

Learning Skills Improvement Service Essay

In my position as a workshop trainer at Deerbolt young offenders’ institute, the education I deliver for The Manchester College as part of their Offender Learning is supported, monitored and shaped by various professional bodies. The purpose of these bodies or sector skills councils vary however they all have a common goal in ensuring and enriching the quality of education being delivered. LSIS or the learning and skills improvement service are such a body who umbrella over every organisation that delivers qualifications throughout the country, and they do exactly what they say on the tin. LSIS improve quality, participation and increase standards in education and training. A lot of their work involves developing resources, implementing schemes, sharing delivery aids that improve quality and achievement and tailoring support to learners needs. â€Å"Colleges and providers helped by LSIS improved by one inspection grade at their next inspection.† (LSIS [ND] [online]) LSIS don’t just support the educational improvements though; in 2010 they recognised The Manchester College as a Healthy FE college, healthy initiatives offered throughout the college like loyalty cards, gym memberships and better eating schemes aimed to improve the health of students and staff. Another group that oversee our work as teachers is the professional body the IFL or the Institute for Learning. Their role is to register everyone practicing as a teacher or trainer in FE on to their database. They promote themselves as supporting professional excellence; they aim to increase the status of teachers as professionals, requiring a membership fee and proof of qualifications which is supported by the employer. They also champion the importance of CPD and require members to provide evidence of this and their teaching hours each year. This is seen to keep standards of teaching high, and promote quality and teaching as a profession. Until very recently this is how the IFL worked but due to the loss in government funding and teachers reluctantly to pay their own subscription the number of people renewing their subscription to the IFL fell by over half to just 85,000 signalling a loss of confidence in the body and an end to its presences. For many teachers and trainers in FE it was seen as a welcomed downfall as many believed the IFL did nothing for them, however now this professional body has collapsed there is no one regulating the qualifications or standard required to teach in FE which may lead to competiveness for jobs and or poor standards of teaching and training. These developments seemingly leave only Ofsted in place to assess the quality and standards of colleges and the individual teachers. â€Å"Ofsted would be made responsible for ensuring that FE teachers were appropriately qualified through inspections† (TES [30/03/2012] [Online]) However I see a huge flaw in this method of assessing quality and knowledge, not every Ofsted inspector can have the depth in knowledge of every subject of every teacher he or she is going to observe. For example if I am teaching bricklaying and I’m teaching unacceptable practices how is that inspector meant to know I am teaching the wrong methods? Surely the only way to overcome this problem is to have employed properly qualified teachers and trainers and not just people with some subject knowledge. Now that the IFL is a voluntary body the employers themselves have discretion over this matter. Construction Skills is another organisation that oversee and support the vocational training we deliver in offender learning. They are a massive organisation and have a lot of different strands from providing qualifications, courses and assessment and training support through CSkills as an awarding organisation. They also developing courses and provide support and training to local businesses through being an industry training board. In 2003 Construction Skills were awarded Sector Skills Council status, this allowed them to deliver valued support across the industry. Their main aims are to help reduce a shortage in specialise skills and help to bring a diverse workforce into the industry. They are also involved in improving business performance and developing professional standards for construction occupations both trade and professional. The other area that they cover is probably most relevant to my work as a vocational trainer; they have a large input on the improvement of education for apprenticeships and higher and further education. They achieve this by awarding grants for training, providing businesses with advice on getting the best from their work force offering card schemes, recognised qualifications and helping to link college learning with on the job experience. Professionalism As teachers, trainers, tutors or whatever you what to call us in FE we all have more than one hat we wear that makes us a professional. The IFL although seemingly no more used to keep everybody who worked as a ‘teacher’ under the status of a professional. They did this by having in place the requirement to achieve QTLS or ATLS within five years of working within the education sector. QTLS stand for qualified teacher learning and skills and ATLS associate teacher learning and skills. Everybody working as a teacher was required to register as one or the other of these statuses depending on your level of teaching qualification, the full Cert Ed being a level 5, I myself would have had to apply for QTLS status. However the following quote suggests that very little teachers working in the sector today have taken out the required status of QTLS/ATLS. â€Å"Only a small number of lecturers have become ‘fully qualified’ under the current arrangements: between 2,900 (GHK, August 2011) and some 6,000 (IfL submission, 2012). Whilst this number may rise as the five-year watershed approaches, some 85 per cent of FE lecturers have not embarked on the final supervised practice phase, following the diploma. We do not believe that so slight a result after such a long delay makes this qualification credible as a licence to practise which, properly speaking, should be earned before starting work, as it would be in other professions.† (Bis [03/2012] [Online]) By making this a requirement the IFL aimed at ensuring each individual teacher had the ability to work at the standards expected of a licenced practitioner. To meet this requirement you were expected to submit evidence of your teaching practice, subject and background knowledge, your continued professional development and your own reflective practice. I feel this was affair approach to the matter They may say the â€Å"licence to practice should be earned before starting work† but the profession of teaching is like no other. Its not really something you can learn out of a book you have to get out there and do it then reflect on it, prepare and do it again. My personal two hats consist of my subject specialism, Carpentry and Joinery level 3 qualification, and hopefully in a couple of months my Cert Ed teaching qualification. Other training and development also comes into it, like holding a CSCS card, which is the Construction Skills Certificate Scheme. Another initiative that Construction Skills mentioned earlier are responsible for putting in place. It means you must hold a valid card to work on any building site in the country. To get a card you must pass a construction health and safety test, the cards also state on the back your profession and level of qualification. This is another method of keeping this industry safe, to required standards and professional. â€Å"Professional formation allows teachers to describe how these standards are evidenced in their teaching practice, along with aspects of subject currency, teaching and learning, reflective practice and planning for continuing professional development.† (IFL [11/2008] [Online]) Professional formation isn’t just about your status or qualifications though. It’s a lot about your actions too. As professionals we are expected to present, conduct and discipline ourselves in a particular manor. However with this status we also have the benefits of being rewarded recognition for our work, enhancing collaborations, sharing good practices and having support and respect from our colleagues, colleges and partnering bodies. The importance of engaging in CPPD CPPD or Continuing Personal and Professional Development is something as professionals we should all be doing on a regular basis. It was a requirement of the IFL to record our CPPD hours each year and although a lot of teachers possibly never took this serious it is a good method of keeping in touch with current affairs and adapting to changing trends. The key thing to remember is that this is not just about completing a list of activities undertaken during the year that add up to 6 or 12 or 30 hours. The time spent can be meaningless unless it makes a difference. (IFL [08/2009] [online]) Education is one such sector that never stands still, the requirement to change and reform is evident and we do this to keep things interesting, relevant and to continually push up standards. From a personal point of view, if I’m teaching my subject specialism I want to be a fountain of knowledge in it, I think it’s important to have good subject knowledge and as I have been out of the trade a couple of years now this is something I aim the address on completion of the Cert Ed. I will look at gaining further qualifications in my subject, or maybe completing an assessor’s award. I have even considered going back to construction site work to gain further experience and update my knowledge. Ideally being out in the field working on actual jobs with students would be the perfect scenario for continually developing myself and I feel this would also benefit the learners immensely. As for CPPD in my teaching, I aim to complete all training events offered, for example we had smart board training at work the other day. I also aim to relish being thrown in at the deep end which regularly happens as a cover tutor. I’m lucky in the way my support role at the prison lets me observe a lot of different teachers each week and taking on their good practices and addressing learners needs is excellent CPPD for me. The importance of reflective practice Reflecting on our work as teachers is the best way to develop, its important to have regular teaching practice. We learn valuable things when were in lessons, under pressure and on the spot, however the real learning comes afterwards when we reflect and analyse the session. This is our time to put things right in our heads and prepare ourselves for the same scenarios the next time. It would be extremely difficult to pre-empt every situation that could occur and almost impossible to prepare for each. â€Å"teachers who explore their own teaching through critical reflection develop changes in attitudes and awareness which they believe can benefit their professional growth as teachers, as well as improve the kind of support they provide their students.† (tttjournal [ND] [Online]) Not only should we be reflecting from our own experiences but it’s also extremely valuable to reflect on observations, hearing opinions from another person’s point of view can really pin point things that may have been frustrating us for weeks. Critical reflective practice is more complex than just reflecting. It’s about planning how you will evaluate a lesson or even a CPPD event; it is good practice to critically review these situations through different people’s points of view. Your colleagues, students, boss, or even a person in the field actually doing what you’re teaching or being taught. With this in mind reflection is one of our most important tools. Bibliography Bis [03/2012] Professionalism in further education [Online] http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/further-education-skills/docs/p/12-670-professionalism-in-further-education-interim [Accessed 27/05/2012] IFL [08/2009] Guidelines for your continuing professional development (CPD) [online] http://www.ifl.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/5501/J11734-IfL-CPD-Guidelines-08.09-web-v3.pdf [Accessed 12/06/2012] IFL [11/2008] Professional Formation [Online] http://www.itslifejimbutnotasweknowit.org.uk/files/IfL-professional-formation-overview.pdf [Accessed 12/06/2012] LSIS [ND] Our Impact in the Sector [Online] http://www.lsis.org.uk/AboutLSIS/LSIS-impact/Pages/default.aspx [Accessed 20/06/12] TES [30/03/2012] FE professionalism gets radical shake-up [Online] http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=6202944 [Accessed 15/04/2012] Tttjournal [ND] Towards Reflective Teaching [Online] http://www.tttjournal.co.uk/uploads/file/back_articles/towards_reflective_teaching.pdf [Accessed 03/06/12]

Explaining Cinema Tickets Price Differences Essay - 1

Explaining Cinema Tickets Price Differences - Essay Example The economic principle is known as the Price Elasticity of Demand, which is â€Å"a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in the price of that good.† (Mankiw, p. 90). In simple equation form: This principle can be further characterized in two ways. First, student and senior demand for cinema tickets is considered elastic because a change in ticket price has a measurable impact on the quantity demanded. (If there was little or no change in demand in response to a change in price, demand would be termed inelastic.) Also, because in the cinema situation the numerator of the equation is greater than the denominator, the absolute price elasticity of demand must be greater than 1. (If the numerator were larger than the denominator, the absolute price elasticity of demand would be less than 1.) There may be several economic-based reasons why students and seniors are highly responsive to cinema pricing. For most people, going to the cinema typically would be considered an optional, not a necessary, activity. So in deciding whether to allocate some of their income to attending the cinema most people are more likely to respond to lower prices. Also, many movies eventually are offered on television and DVD, so in deciding whether to allocated some of their income to attending the cinema, most people are more likely to respond to lower prices because they are not risking never seeing the particular movie. Moreover, compared to the average adult, students and seniors are viewed as having less income and so would be more sensitive than most people to each of the above factors and thus more likely to spend if ticket prices are lower.

Reflecting on critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reflecting on critique - Essay Example It has been argued that it is characterized by the possibilities of machines. Eiffel tower design is very interesting because â€Å"many modernist movements were interested in producing art and architecture that draws attention to the process of construction involved in making the objects and arts." 1 This can be seen clearly from the Eiffel tower, even though it is an old building the architects behind the design of the building wanted to appeal people by having a unique design that captures the human attention. Lyotard’s argues that there is a conflation of art and philosophy. This is because before designing an object an architect must first of all visualize what he or she wants to design. Post modernism brings about the effects that come about because of having a central focus being attraction rather than building a strong building that can withstand the test of time.2 Although there has been allegation that postmodernism is not well understood today because it there has been conflicting reports on which areas it covers, which can be found in â€Å"all the arts, poetry of John Ashberry for instance as all the arts† 3 One of the most important features of postmodernism is pastiche. Pastiche involves imitation of other forms of art. How ve, imitation of other forms of art is wrong because we will continue producing the same styles each year. In addition, it also limits creativity. Therefore, most architects have been discouraged from copying other people’s work. However, the relationship between design and philosophy comes out clearly in Eiffel towers. The architects who designed Eiffel towers tried to incorporate philosophy in designing a building. This is evident from the number of tourists who visit France in order to see Eiffel

Waste Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Waste Management - Essay Example This amounts to 20,000 to 30,000 tonnes of general battery waste generated each year. Facilities for recycling automotive batteries are well developed and 90% of the highly hazardous automotive batteries go for recycling. However comparatively, only one percent of household batteries go for recycling. In 2000, approximately 19,000 tonnes of waste general usage batteries and 113,000 tonnes of automotive batteries had to be disposed. Most of these were dumped in landfill sites. Approximately 680 million batteries were purchased in UK in 2001, and statistics show that over 89% of these were general purpose batteries. Figures in other countries like US and Japan are as devastating. Estimates1 indicate that over three billion industrial and household batteries were sold in the US in 1998, and battery consumption rate rose by 5.8 percent annually through 2002. Between 1998 and 2003, the global demand for secondary batteries grew by 67% with Japan holding 65% of the market share in 2003. Th e cost of recycling varies in different countries, while some base it on the chemistry of the battery, others measure it across tonnage alone. However the basic cost for recycling batteries approximately comes to $1,000 to $2,000US per ton. The costs double when transportation is also included. This is a figure that all countries are trying to bring down, with Europe aiming to achieve the figure of $300 per ton (Buchmann, 2001). Authorities responsible for managing battery waste Currently various local authorities have been established specifically for managing battery waste. The Waste and Recycling Action Plan (WRAP) has started various programmes across UK for battery collection. REBAT is another organization in the UK set up to manage and collect portable rechargeable batteries. It is a component of the British Battery Manufacturer Association, and provides comprehensive information on recycling companies and support for battery recycling. A few of the battery recycling plants and programs set up in Europe include names of G&P Batteries, the first recycling plant dedicated to recycling household batteries. Britannia Refined Metals in Kent and HJ Enthoven & Sons in Derbyshire are two recycling

Romantic Literacture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Romantic Literacture - Essay Example Romantics whether poets or painters, whatever the artist’s inclination was during the Romantic era; pursued their passions with the aim of stirring people’s emotions. Feelings are among the foci of Romanticism and they achieved this with the use of everyday circumstances that most of the people could relate to. For Coleridge and Wordsworth, perhaps one of their ideals was that literary works are worthless when they are not understood by their audiences and that they desired to touch the common people who were unable to appreciate poetry because of their social status. Before the Romantic era, poetry was for the rich, they were written for and by those who had the advantage of being educated and have the luxury of time so that the time of the two most prominent poets attracted ordinary people and actually started the birth of poetry in them. The subject matters during this period were about common events that ordinary people live, based from observations and experiences so that it purposefully allows the reader or listener to the poems or other literary works to be able to understand and ‘feel’ what the poem is all about. ... people observed by poets but also about those who lived around them, acquaintances and loved ones as well and other observations like Youth and Age which talk about the suggested topic. Other subject matters in this era is about feelings which are exemplified by the works of Coleridge like ‘Desire’, ‘Love a Poem’, The Presence of Love’ and ‘Dejection’ to name a few. Another important subject of the romantics is nature. One of the things that naturally stir up man’s emotions is nature whether beautiful or not, a good thing or a disastrous one, romanticism does not just focus on the good things but delves in the facts of life. This is one good argumentative point on the comment of Wu, as we look back to it saying the word romantic during the time of Coleridge and Wordsworth is fanciful. If it were, then the life they had then that was pictured in their poems was fanciful? In addition, those who live life with passion, emotions and as observed during those times, would then called fanciful as well? Probably, to understand more deeply the hearts of the Romantic poets, an individual has to put himself in that situation for him to be able to understand the reality of the situation before making comments that may degrade people who worked hard to establish their names. ‘Light’ is a word that shows how Wu has taken lightly the hard works of Romantic poets. It could have been hard work for them to have observed and meditated about the circumstances and events they wanted to write about so that it would entirely be insensitive for Wu to have referred to their works as ‘light’. Light for me is evasive which when we look into the Romantic literary works will not be evidenced by even one of them as the poets stuck to the objective of the era, that is to

The impact of cultural differences on the hierarchy of a hotel Research Paper - 1

The impact of cultural differences on the hierarchy of a hotel - Research Paper Example Customers would think that quality service is being delivered to them if the employees can understand them better. Whether it is food, services, employee policies etc, the global requirements need to be considered in all operations. While cultural diversity and incorporating the trends of globalization is indispensable for the hotel industry, various cultural conflicts occur as a result of this cultural diversity. These misunderstandings are of various types and due to various reasons. Every culture has a different set of beliefs and norms and when people of different cultures come together and work, differences are bound to arise. These differences become more challenging in an industry where customers to be dealt with are also from different cultures and have different demands. While various inter-cultural challenges are faced, one such issue is the impact of cultural differences on the hierarchy of a hotel. People from poorer countries usually have lower positions and from the developed have higher positions. This creates a barrier amongst the higher and lower level employees and creates many problems regarding cultural differences as what one may think is right as part of their culture, the other might not. This study aims to determine the impact of cultural differences on the hierarchy of a hotel. The findings of this study would be very helpful in determining how the barrier between high and low-level employees can be reduced in the light of cultural differences. Cultural diversity if managed properly can help to increase organizational performance (Kemp & Dwyer, 2001). There are various levels in an organization where culture has an influence and where a higher degree of cultural awareness is essential (Roper & Brookes, 1997). This study would hence facilitate in understanding how this diversity can be managed in a batter way to become a pro rather than a con for a hotel. Finally, it would also aid in giving better understanding to hotel managements

Short and long term returns on overseas market Essay

Short and long term returns on overseas market - Essay Example Many firms, like large oil or chemical companies, operate in industries with large economies of scale and their operations spill across national boundaries simply to be competitive. Cost considerations (e.g. transport) are important in choosing whether to increase exports or invest overseas. Equally tariff barriers to trade can encourage direct investment, but non-tariff barriers are also important. Many services are not exportable in any direct sense and have to be delivered in the overseas market through direct investment. They need to respond to the changing demand considerations of overseas markets - especially where product specifications are different from the home market. This may make it sensible to locate closer to the main centres of demand, to enable easier adaptation without disruption to production in the domestic market. Other disincentives to direct trade could be that competition takes place on grounds other than price and quality of output. For example, competition in some product markets may be mainly in terms of after sales service. Most direct investment, as with trade, occurs between similar industrial countries. direct investments will take place without displacing trade. They may even encourage greater trade flows, because intermediate inputs of production will need to be exported to support the overseas plants. In this instance, as in some others, direct investment is complementary to trade. On other occasions, it may substitute for it. Another explanation for overseas investment with parallels in trade theory is a version of the "product cycle" theory. Here production initially begins in the domestic country where the product was developed, with good access to the skilled designers and technicians responsible for "inventing" the product. As the product matures, these inputs become less important and production shifts to a country with a cost advantage in the production of the now standard good. Production overseas is cheaper and goods are exported back into the domestic economy. A further explanation for firms' investment in a foreign market rather than exporting goods to it is that there are external benefits (or spillovers) from overseas investment. These are most likely to stem from location in markets which set trends in demand, or are the "centers of excellence" in terms of production techniques, design, marketing or organization. Why overseas investment The prime motivation for investment in the international market must be that the stream of earnings is expected to exceed that which could be earned in the domestic markets. This could often be attributed to lower production costs in other countries. This investment will ultimately benefit the economy as a whole. The stream of income from overseas investments changes the composition of the current account of the balance of payments. Most directly, it does so by increasing the economy's earnings from abroad. But it may also indirectly promote a net trade improvement. Portfolio Investment In portfolio investment, there is no attempt by portfolio investors to actively control the management of a firm, rather it aims to seek out

“Tipping” vs. Bribery Essay Example for Free

â€Å"Tipping† vs. Bribery Essay There are many similarities between paying a large tip to secure a better table in a restaurant and offering a bribe to secure a business contract. Firstly, both are essentially bribery. In both situations the bribe is something like an expression of gratitude before the fact, or, more accurately, an imposition of obligatory reciprocation—in both situations, the goal of the briber is to put the recipient of the bribe in a position of obligation. Another similarity is that both kinds of bribes are â€Å"competitive†: the bribe is made to gain a perhaps-unfair advantage over others. In both situations the briber creates a situation in which he increases the likelihood that he will be chosen above all else, while also increasing the likelihood that the relevant merits of the different â€Å"contenders† to the wanted resource are ignored. The briber is essentially saying: â€Å"We’re both here for something. I’ll give you more of what you want, so you give me what I want before others get what they want.† There are big differences, however. One is that while the restaurant employee who receives the tip is probably poor; the recipient of the bribe for the contract is not. Both are also a form of cheating, but the bribe for the contract is much graver. Who loses in the two situations? The consequences of the restaurant bribe are minimal—everyone will still get their meals, although some at a worse table (but how bad can a table at a restaurant be?). The consequences of the bribe for the contract, however, are huge, and can be life altering—for the better or for the worse. Considering all the points discussed, it becomes apparent that the two scenarios have many similarities, but they are not the same.

Criticism And Drawbacks Of The Kuznets Curve Economics Essay

Criticism And Drawbacks Of The Kuznets Curve Economics Essay Environmental Kuznets Curve The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) is a pragmatically, relationship that is assumed to trace the pollution path followed by countries as their per capita gross domestic product (GDP) grows and describes the relationship between per capita income and of environmental degradation indicators (Unruth and Moomaw, 1998). In the infant stages of development, the levels of some pollutants climb with increases in per capita income, while at advanced levels of development, environmental degradation follows a downward trend as income per capita is moving upwards. These results give rise to a bell shaped curve relating economic growth to environmental degradation, redolent of the relationship hypothesized by Kuznets (1995) between economic and income inequality (Nahman and Antrobus, 2005). The concept of EKC came out in the early 1990s with Grossman and Kruegers (1991) path-breaking study of the potential impacts of NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement). Origins of the EKC The environmental Kuznets curve is a hypothesized relationship between different indicators of environmental degradation and income per capita. At first stages of economic growth degradation and pollution increase, but further than some level of income per capita, the movement reverses, so that at high-income levels economic growth leads to environmental improvement. This means that the impact of environmental indicator is an inverted U-shaped function of income per capita (Stern, 2003) In other words, the distribution of income becomes more asymmetrical in early stage of income growth and then the distribution moves towards greater equality as economic growth continues (Kuznets, 1955). This liaison between income per capita and income inequality can be represented by a bell-shaped curve. This is viewed as an empirical phenomenon known as the Kuznets Curve (Dinda, 2004). Criticism and drawbacks of the Kuznets Curve The Kuznets Curve has helped in studying the relationship between environmental pollutants and GDP of countries but it does have drawbacks too. Even Kuznets (1955) himself indicated that the Kuznets Curve Theory is not a perfect one and the relationship between income inequality and economic development cannot be assumed. He also declared that lot information in the paper has been speculated and thus further research work must be carried out. The reason behind the development of the Environmental Kuznets Curve Since the last decades, the increasing threat of global warming and climate change has been of major continuing concern. Organisations such as the United Nations have been trying to diminish the unfavorable impacts of global warming through intergovernmental and binding accords. After immense negotiations, the agreement namely the Kyoto protocol was signed in 1997. This protocol has the objective of reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) that cause climate change. The Kyoto protocol recognises limitations to environmental pollutants and necessitates a timetable for realisation of the emission reductions for the developed countries. During 2008 2012 periods the demands reduction of the GHG emissions to 5.2 % lower than the 1990 level. In 2005 it came into force: 178 states have signed and approved the protocol since April 2008 (Halicoglu, 2008). Greenhouse gas emissions particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, are considered to be the core causes of global warming. Consequently, to prev ent global warming a number of countries have signed the Kyoto Protocol and agreed to diminish their emission levels. Galeotti and Lanza (1999) indicated that some developing states refused to sign the Kyoto Protocol based on the argument that the industrialisation and development process should be subject to no constraints, particularly for energy production and consumption. One probable foundation for this position is the belief that while pollution increases with growth in GDP, it happens a point where pollution goes down. This view calls for a careful analysis of the relationship between economic growth and pollution. This relationship is obviously very complex as it depends on numerous different factors such as: The countrys size, The sectoral structure, including the composition of the demand for energy, The vintage of the technology, The demand for environmental quality, The level and quality of environmental protection expenditures. Shafik (1994) reports that the relationship between economic growth and environmental quality has been a source of great disagreement for a lengthy period of time. On one side it has been observed that greater economic activity unavoidably leads to environmental degradation and finally to possible economic and ecological collapse. At the other side is the view that those environmental nuisances worth solving will be tackled more or less automatically as a consequence of economic growth. Previous to 1970, there was a conviction that the raw materials consumptions, energy and natural resources were growing at the same pace as economy grows. In the early 1970s, the Club of Romes Limits of Growth view (Meadows et al., 1972) was brazen about the concern for the accessibility of natural resource of the Earth. They argued that the finiteness of ecological resources would prevent economic growth and advocated for a solid state economy with zero growth to avoid striking ecological circumstances in the future. This view has been criticised on both hypothetical and empirical grounds. Experimental works shows that the ratio of consumption of some metals to income was falling in developed countries during the 1970s, which brings divergence with the predictions set out in the Limits to Growth view (Maleness, 1978). Natural environment not only provide natural resources important for economic development but also execute the vital function of supporting life, if man persist to exp loit environment recklessly, then it would not be able to sustain life any longer. Environmental Kuznets Curve definition and graphical illustration The EKC follows the name of Nobel Laureate Simon Kuznets who had remarkably hypothesized an inverted U income-inequality relationship (Kuznets, 1955). In the 1990s economists detected this relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation. Since then this relationship is known as Environmental Kuznets Curve. According to the EKC theory as a country develops, the pollution increases, but after reaching a specific level of economic progress pollution begin to decrease. The EKC hypothesis suggests that environmental degradation is something unavoidable at the first stage of economic growth, so a developing country is forced to tolerate this degradation in order to develop. In a graphical representation the x-axis symbolize the economic growth which is measured by GDP per capita and the y-axis represents the environmental degradation which is measured by many different pollution indicators such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, deforestation etc. The shapes of the Environmental Kuznets Curves. The relation between income and environmental pressure can be sketched in a several ways; firstly one can distinguish monotonic and non-monotonic curves. Monotonic curves may show either mounting pollution with rising incomes, as in the case of municipal waste per capita or decreasing. But, non-monotonic patterns may be more probable in other cases and two types have been recommended, namely inverted-U and N-shaped curves. The pattern discovered in experiential research depend on the types of pollutants scrutinised and the models that have been used for inference. Four speculative opinions are presented in favour of an inverted-U curve for (local) air pollutants, which can be listed as: Positive income elasticitys for environmental quality, Structural changes in production and consumption, Rising information on environmental consequences of economic activities as income rises and More international trade and more open political systems with increasing levels of income (Selden and Song 1994). Others, for example Pezzey (1989) and Opschoor (1990), have argued that such inverted-U relationships may not hold in the long run. They anticipated a so-called N-shaped curve which demonstrates the same pattern as the inverted-U curve initially, but beyond a certain income level the relationship between environmental pressure and income is positive again. Delinking is thus considered a temporary phenomenon. Opschoor (1990), for example, argues that once technological efficiency enhancements in resource use or abatement opportunities have been exhausted or have become too expensive, further income growth will result in net environmental degradation. Despite these considerations empirical evidence so far has been largely in favour of the inverted-U instead of the N shaped relationship (de Bruyn et al., 1998). The shortcomings of EKC analysis A number of critical studies of the EKC literature have been published (e.g. Coodoon, 2003; Ekins, 2000; Fare et al.,2001; Perman, 2003; Stern et al., 1996; Stern, 2004). Theoretical critique This section discusses the criticisms that were raised against the EKC on theoretical (rather than methodological) grounds. One of the main criticisms of the EKC models is the assumption that environment and growth are not interrelated. In simple words the EKC hypothesis assumes no feedback between income and the pollution of environment. Fare et al., (2001) refer that due to the non-availability of actual data on environmental quality is the major restriction of all EKC studies. Environmental quality is something that is not measured accurately. Therefore, a guide of environmental quality, which could be a better measurement, should be developed and used to examine the EKC hypothesis. According to Ekins (2000), consideration in assessing the strength of the estimation is the reliability of the data used. However, there is little sign that the data problems are serious enough to shed doubt on the basic environment-income link for any particular environmental indicator, but the results in fact imply that this might be the case. Stern (2004) draws his attention to the mean median problem. He underlines that early EKC studies showed that a number of indicators: 2 SO emissions, x NO, and deforestation, peak at income levels around the current world mean per capita income. A hasty glimpse at the available econometric estimates might have lead one to believe that, given likely future levels of mean income per capita, environmental degradation should turn down from the present onward. Income is not yet, normally distributed but very skewed, with much larger numbers of people below mean income per capita than above it. Hence, this shows a median rather than mean income that is the relevant variable. Another problem related with the EKC studies is the little attention that has been paid to the statistical components of time series analysis. Very few studies in the past investigated the presence of unit root in time series of variables used to investigate the validity of the EKC. 2) Econometric critique Stern (2004) in a survey argues that the econometric criticisms of the EKC fall into four main categories: heteroscedasticity, simultaneity, omitted variables bias, and cointegration issues. Perman and Stern (2003) investigate the data and models for unit roots and cointegration respectively. Panel unit root tests designate that all three series log sulfur emissions per capita, log GDP capita, and its square have stochastic trends. Results for cointegration are less definite. About half the individual country EKC regressions cointegrate but many of these have limitations with incorrect signs. Some panel cointegration tests point out cointegration in all countries and some accept the non-cointegration hypothesis. However, even when cointegration is found, the form of the EKC relationship varies radically across countries with many countries having U-shaped EKCs. In case theres a common cointegrating vector in all countries it will be strongly rejected. Coondoo and Dinda (2002) carried out an analysis for Granger Causality between CO2 emissions and income in various individual countries and regions. In general model that emerges is that causality runs from income to emissions or that there is no significant relationship in developing countries, while in developed countries causality runs from emissions to income. Still, in every case the relationship is positive so that there is no EKC type effect. Data and Time Series Properties To study the relationship between the GDP of Mauritius and the C02 emission in Mauritius the annual data that are being used are; total C02 emission from 1976 to 2008, the real GDP from 1976 to 2008, the population of Mauritius from 1976 to 2008, inflation rate of Mauritius and the unemployment rate of Mauritius. Source: Energy Data Book(2010) Figure 1: Per Capital CO2 Emission Estimate for Mauritius From these sets of data it can be clearly seen that while population was increasing (Figure 2), during these years the real GDP (Figure 3) has been fluctuating a bit. In mid 1970s after the independence there has been a lot of development and transformation in our country. Our economy was diversified and more jobs were created. Furthermore we received more foreign aid. By the late 1970s our economy deteriorated a bit mainly due to the increase in petroleum price in the world market and this lead to less government subsidies and devaluation of our Mauritian Rupees. Then by late 1980s the economy experience steady growth and also a high level of employment, declining inflation and more domestic savings. This period was also marked by the boom in the sugar industry. Though the development slowed down in the 1990s there was a gradual development of the local financial institutions and at the same time our domestic information telecommunication industry boomed. By the start of the 21st ce ntury there our financial services sector became a very important pillar of the economy with an increasing number of offshore enterprises. Finally our economy developed a lot due to the seafood processing and export during the last 10 years. Figure 2: Population Estimates for Mauritius Figure 3: GDP for Mauritius (without inflation) In the short term real GDP is affected by inflation (Figure 4) because the latter causes a rise in general price of goods and services and consequently this causes a change in investments, savings, consumption and import and export of a country and thus the GDP of a country is affected too. [The equation used to calculate real GDP is; GDP = private consumption+ gross investment + government spending + (exports imports)] Source: Federal Bank of Cleveland (2010) Figure 4: Inflation in Mauritius GDP is also depended on unemployment rate (Figure 5) because according to this equation GDP =  compensation of employees  +  gross operating surplus  +  gross mixed income  + taxes less subsidies on production and imports. Thus if unemployment rate increases in a country, the GDP will decrease. Source: Index mundi (2010) Figure 5: Unemployment Rate in Mauritius While trying to prove the relationship between GDP of Mauritius and the C02 emission of Mauritius, we can also observe how the GDP also affects the C02 emission in each specific sector of Mauritius. Graph 6 shows how the Energy sector and the Transport sector are the main contributors to C02 emission from 2000 to 2006. Source: CSO Mauritius(2010) Figure 6: C02 emission per sector