Introduction to Psychopathology

Introduction Psychological researchers have for a long time made attempts to understand normal and abnormal human behavior. According to Amrend and Stonrned, abnormal psychology can be defined as a branch of psychology that deals with mental disorders, emotions and the causes of abnormal behavior, usually referred to as psychopathology (1995). The study covers the causes and measures of dealing with the condition. Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Introduction to Psychopathology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It also focuses on that behavior which does not fall within the confines of what can be termed normal behavior limits hence regarded as abnormal. There is no clear cut between normal and abnormal behavior across human beings. The determination of acceptable behavior has been known to vary from one culture to another. This is because of the difference in the way people behave in different societies and cultures. With psychology, in general, dealing with the study of human behavior and behavior change; abnormal psychology is therefore a branch of psychology that investigates people’s maladjusted behavior relative to the socially approved behavior (Masterpasqua, 2009). This field of psychology deals with disorders in behavior on the basis of human behavior resulting from a thought process. This implies, therefore, that behavior disorder results from a disorder in human thoughts. There is no ideal behavior or perfect behavior, but that behavior which is perceived by the greater majority to be the normal behavior (Masterpasqua, 2009). This explains why there is some significant variation from one culture to another as a far as the determination of normal and abnormal behavior is concerned. If a certain behavior is generally acceptable by the majority, then it is regarded as normal. The acceptable ways of conducting oneself in the society are transferred from one generat ion to another through social learning, genetic components, judgment and social interaction in general.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Origins of Abnormal Psychology The origin of abnormal psychology can be traced back to the ancient times. People have been trying to examine the behavior of people against the conventionally accepted normality. People have tried to investigate the causes of such abnormal behavior. Abnormal behavior was initially considered as being caused by spirits, demons and some supernatural forces beyond human control. The causes of abnormal behavior can be categorized into three major factors: supernatural, biological and psychological. During the Stone Age period, any abnormal behavior was considered as punishment from God or gods for that matter. The behavior was believed to be caused by evil spirits which had to be exorcised in order to bring the i ndividual to normalcy. The means and ways in which the spirits were exorcised varied from one community to the other. According to a research by Shieff, Smith and Wadley, the spirits could be exorcised by drilling a hole in the person’s head in order to allow the evil spirits to escape (2007). In some instances, others used to torture the person possessed by the spirits with an aim of compelling the spirits to come out of the victim. Other religious practices could also be done to exorcise the demonic spirits. The practices and beliefs were adhered to until towards the end of 15th century. At the beginning of the 16th century, psychologists and physicians of the time were convinced that abnormal behavior manifestations that were experienced as a result of cognitive disorders were closely linked to the movements of celestial bodies like the moon and stars. The movements were thought to bring with it demons and evil spirits. Greek physicians, on the other hand, thought that abnormal behavior was biological and could be treated just like any other mental disease (Amrend Stonrned, 1995). Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Introduction to Psychopathology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to the physicians, the brain is responsible for all the behavior changes and when there is a problem in the brain, the individual’s behavior could be affected directly. It was later argued that behavior, to a great extent, was influenced by the social factors in the society. From this perspective, abnormal behavior was seen to be related to the psychological status of a person. It is evident, therefore, that the evolution of abnormal psychology has transcended abstract beliefs of ancient ages to a more modern scientific understanding of the same condition. In the 21st century, physicians can offer therapeutic care for the patients with mental challenges that may manifest throu gh abnormal behavior(Shieff et al., 2007). This has offered a good foundation for the development of abnormal psychology. Models of Psychology There are three approaches or models that can be used in the study of abnormal psychology. The approaches include: biological, psychosocial and socio-cultural models. Biological Model The model is also referred to as the medical model from the fact that the model deals with physiological body functioning as well as the functioning of the brain. The approach views abnormal behavior as a disease which can be treated using medical means. Abnormal behavior is diagnosed and appropriate cure prescribed. The causes of abnormal behavior, according to this model, may be due to; inheritance, disease, body hormonal imbalance, malnutrition and neurochemical disorder (Amrend Stonrned, 1995). Although the model deals with medical approach, there is a social connection with biological mechanism. For example, mood and anxiety are believed to be predispose d by certain genetic makeup in the DNA. The biological model offers a limited explanation of abnormal behavior because it fails to explain the changes in behavior as a result of social influence of the environment. Socio-cultural Model According to this model, behavior is developed as a result of learning and coping in the immediate social environment such as the family, school and community. The culture of a particular community, for example, influences the behavior of the people within that community. The model proposes that abnormal behavior is a product of negative cultural practices. Masterpasqua, a specialist in the field of abnormal psychology, suggests that learning of behavior is influenced by the social group and the cultural pressure that surrounds an individual (2009). The pressure build up over a period of time and causes behavior change. The model gives a clear explanation of how to change behavior by modifying the social environment.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Psychosocial Model This model explains abnormal behavior from a psychological perspective. According to the proponents of this model, abnormal behavior is caused by unsupportive environment during the development of an individual. The abnormal behavior results when the environment is psychologically unfavorable and may lead to mental illness or disorder. The psychological tension, as argued by Amrend and Stonrned (1995), causes unresolved conflicts in the unconscious mind that may consequently affect the mental functioning and physiological state of the body. Abnormal behavior results from the interference of the normal behavior development process. When there is an unresolved conflict in a certain stage, there is a likelihood that the conflict will be passed on to subsequent stages, leading to the development of an abnormal behavior. Conclusion The paper has discussed the various origins of abnormal psychology and how it has evolved over time into a scientific discipline. It has also analyzed the hypothetical viewpoints and interpretations of biological, psychosocial, and socio-cultural models. These models provide useful perspectives for understanding abnormal psychology. This field has clearly undergone significant transformation to what it is at present. With time, researchers have come up with convincing theories to explain the probable causes of abnormal psychology and how it can be treated. References Amrend, G. N. Stonrned, P. N. (1995). The Diagnosis of Abnormal Psychology. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 42 (2), 180-196 Masterpasqua, F. (2009). Psychology and Epigenetics. General Psychology, 13 (3), 194-201 Shieff, C., Smith, G. T. Wadley, J. P. (2007). Self-Trephination of the Skull with an Electric Power Drill. British Journal of Neurosurgery, 15 (2), 156-158 This research paper on Introduction to Psychopathology was written and submitted by user Bast10n to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Good And Evil In Shylock

While attempting a successful character analysis of Shylock, one must decide if he is ultimately good or bad. After careful reading and rereading of this play, some readers may still moat still not feel comfortable giving him a definite label of either good or bad, victim or villain. If a reader is set on giving Shylock a clear-cut label, he will be giving himself quite a challenge. Readers may find aspects of both good and bad in Shylock’s character. While he looks worse in some situations then he does in others, even when he appears to be at his worst, readers can find justification for his actions and sympathize with his character. However, readers must be careful not to overlook some of his bad characteristics that may have been avoided despite the situation. In the end, one cannot make a definite judgment on the character of Shylock. He seems incapable of being consistently good or bad. He mistreats people, but they mistreat him as well. He shows contempt for peo ple of a different, but they do irreversible damage to his life as well. He demands the flesh of another man, but the other man steals his flesh and blood in a veil of deception. He shows little mercy, but no mercy is shown to him. So, how does one properly analyze a man who, throughout the play, is reduced to the status of less than a man? The answer is carefully, showing both the good and the bad aspects of his character. One must argue for and against Shylock’s integrity throughout the progress of the play. Throughout the play, Shylock repetitively mistreats three characters. First, there is Launcelot, his disloyal servant. Launcelot claims, â€Å"[†¦] I am famished in his service† (II. i. 94). Launcelot begs to leave the service of the ‘Jew’ and become a servant to Bassanio. Shylock also mistreats his own daughter, Jessica. He orders her around, showing little care for her happiness, appearing to be an inattentive father. On one hand, Shyloc... Free Essays on Good And Evil In Shylock Free Essays on Good And Evil In Shylock While attempting a successful character analysis of Shylock, one must decide if he is ultimately good or bad. After careful reading and rereading of this play, some readers may still moat still not feel comfortable giving him a definite label of either good or bad, victim or villain. If a reader is set on giving Shylock a clear-cut label, he will be giving himself quite a challenge. Readers may find aspects of both good and bad in Shylock’s character. While he looks worse in some situations then he does in others, even when he appears to be at his worst, readers can find justification for his actions and sympathize with his character. However, readers must be careful not to overlook some of his bad characteristics that may have been avoided despite the situation. In the end, one cannot make a definite judgment on the character of Shylock. He seems incapable of being consistently good or bad. He mistreats people, but they mistreat him as well. He shows contempt for peo ple of a different, but they do irreversible damage to his life as well. He demands the flesh of another man, but the other man steals his flesh and blood in a veil of deception. He shows little mercy, but no mercy is shown to him. So, how does one properly analyze a man who, throughout the play, is reduced to the status of less than a man? The answer is carefully, showing both the good and the bad aspects of his character. One must argue for and against Shylock’s integrity throughout the progress of the play. Throughout the play, Shylock repetitively mistreats three characters. First, there is Launcelot, his disloyal servant. Launcelot claims, â€Å"[†¦] I am famished in his service† (II. i. 94). Launcelot begs to leave the service of the ‘Jew’ and become a servant to Bassanio. Shylock also mistreats his own daughter, Jessica. He orders her around, showing little care for her happiness, appearing to be an inattentive father. On one hand, Shyloc...

Masters Academic Writing Skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Masters Academic Writing Skills - Essay Example Ann Morrow Lindbergh in her work affirms, â€Å"Writing is thinking, it is more than living, for it is being conscious of living.† This is a clear indication that for good academic writing, great thinking was vital and it can be a source of living when employed rightfully (Coffin & Curry 2003). It is important to note here that good writing is passion and determination, and on the other hand it is a chastisement for others. It depends from your personality and your proficiency in a particular field of study and one’s field of interest. For quality academic writing, one have to understand that to achieve a conversance in this occupation a person should follow some rules and guidelines for good quality and well-reasoned research work. This paper therefore illustrates these skills vividly outlining their importance of the skill for good academic writing (Casanave 2002). Academic writing considers the outcome of a process involving investigation on some topic together with a diligent deliberation on the topic. This process aims at demonstrating and explaining deeply the purpose of the investigation of the topic in order to draw a viable conclusion. The investigation of a topic enables a reader to understand the standpoint of an argument that is considered credible for sound reasoning. The task of writer is to research the theme which is reinforced by some objective confirmations and logical evidences (Chin, Reid, Wray and Yamasaki, 2013). All facts which a writer uses are to be supported by past scientific researches or other authentic sources (Castle 2010). Firstly, the writer should master reading and researching skills. Any research starts with the literature outlook and scientific work diagnoses. As Chin, Reid, Wray and Yamasaki (2013) mention, a writer gains better understanding of the topic through exploration of then complicated and intricate literature. A good example of academic writing goes through proper comprehension in the

Literature. Crusoe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Literature. Crusoe - Essay Example It is not just an immense tree, but is "five foot ten inches in diameter at the lower part . . . and four foot eleven inches diameter at the end of twenty-two foot." Furthermore, time is measured with similar exactitude, as Crusoe's journal shows. We may often wonder why Crusoe feels it useful to record that it did not rain on December 26, but for him the necessity of counting out each day is never questioned. "As I had once done thus in my breaking away from my Parents, so I could not be content now, but I must go and leave the happy View I had of being a rich and thriving Man in my new Plantation, only to pursue a rash and immoderate Desire of rising faster than the Nature of the Thing admitted;" (p.257) All these examples of counting and measuring underscore Crusoe's practical, businesslike character and his hands-on approach to life. But Defoe sometimes hints at the futility of Crusoe's measuring-as when the carefully measured canoe cannot reach water or when his obsessively kept calendar is thrown off by a day of oversleeping. Generally, we see that there is a major sense of class superiority. Robinson hired one "European servant" and a "Negro slave" on his plantation. We are supposed to assume that one is better than the other. The basis of such distinctions is rooted in religion. ... The basis of such distinctions is rooted in religion. Defoe introduces what is perhaps the most important background component to the story--the role of Christianity, particularly as it connects to relationships with other people. What appears to be a friendship between Robinson and Xury is turned into a common master-slave relationship when Crusoe decides to part with him so that Xury will be Christian in ten years' time. The fact that he is willing to forsake his companion in this manner indicates how strongly the Christian faith is entrenched within him. Essentially it is the driving force behind this decision. The excerpt below exemplifies how Crusoe viewed his life when faced with crisis which can have an economic nature and how God acts to help him get through it. "I have been in all my Circumstances a Memento to those who are touched with the general Plague of Mankind, whence, for ought I know, one half of their Miseries flow; I mean, that of not being satisfy'd with the Station wherein God and Nature has plac'd them; for not to look back upon my primitive Condition, and the excellent Advice of my Father, the Opposition to which was, as I may call it, my ORIGINAL SIN." (p. 168) It happen'd one Day about Noon going towards my Boat, I was exceedingly surpriz'd with the Print of a Man's naked Foot on the Shore." (p. 172) The business-like friendship between Xury and Crusoe is further emphasized when the narrator procures a plantation in Brazil. Astounded by the hard work, he wishes dearly for "his boy Xury." The diction of this line demonstrates possessiveness toward Robinson's companion. Ironically, he only longs for his company when there is back-breaking labor to be done. It appears that Xury's un-Christian status degrades him in the eyes of the narrator and

Criminal Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Criminal Justice - Essay Example According to the research findings it can therefore be said that the criminal justice system protects the citizens from the criminal elements. The system includes the United States courts of law. First, the criminal justice system includes the collection of federal agencies, state agencies, and local agencies that focus on monitoring and resolving the United States’ criminal incidents. Each department has the responsibility and as well as authority to process suspects in any reported crime under its jurisdiction. Likewise, each department must take control of and ensure custody of each defendant in any crime. Lastly, each department shall ensure each convicted felon serves each sentence that the courts render on each suspect or defendant. In addition, the legislative branch of the United States government creates the basic framework of each criminal justice department. Ralph Henham insists the criminal justice laws must shift to the restorative justice concept. The concept sta tes that each convicted felon is trained by the penitentiary to drop their evil ways become productive members of society, after serving their jail sentences. In addition, judicial branch of the United States implements its own basic framework for each criminal justice department to implement. Geoffrey Scarre emphasizes the courts include mitigating or aggravating circumstances when deciding cases. Finally, the executive branch of the United States government implements its own tenets for each criminal justice organization. ... Mental disorders among the juveniles significantly increase the possibility of their arrests. However, other research findings indicate the criminal justice organization must be cautious or compassionate when arresting or taking custody of the confused juvenile delinquent, especially those with acquired deficit activities and opposition defiant problems. Further, the prisons are responsible for monitoring the convicted felons and suspects within penitentiaries. Bean Philip (1999) reiterated the technology reduces the cost to hire more jail guards and within the penitentiary. Technology includes the use of CCTV cameras replace human beings as keepers of the peace and surveillance tools within the jail premises. In addition, the courts weigh the evidences as basis passing judgment. K. Douglas (Douglas, 1997) reiterates the Jury used photographic evidences to strengthen the guilty verdict. In addition, bureaucracy maximizes the criminal justice organization’s efficiency. However, the line and staff organization reduces flexibility. During some occasion, the bureaucracy is synonymous with the red tape. Red tape means there are too many unnecessary rules, laws, or policies that may hinder fast, effective, and efficient implementation of the justice. Often bureaucracy impedes immediate implementation of justice. The leadership in criminal justice organizations. Ron Cacioppe (1997) accentuates leadership wisdom is of prime importance in the criminal justice organization. First, the leaders must hone their current skills in critical thinking. Next, the leaders of the criminal justice organization should enhance their current crisis leadership prowess. In addition, the criminal justice system’s leaders must improve their present change management

Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern

Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Introduction Hamlet It is important to note that Hamlet itself is a transformation, of form as well as ideas, which is based upon other transformations. Indeed the metatheme of Hamlet is transformation (whereas Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead is about the inability to effect transformation or change). Tom McAlindon, in an article entitled What is a Shakespearean Tragedy, draws our attention to the fact that Hamlet, like Shakespeares other tragedies, has an intense focus on the phenomenon of change: change is not just one of worldly fortunes; it is above all else interpersonal, moral, and psychological change. An essential part of the heros experience is the horrified discovery that the world he knows and values, the people he loves and trusts, are changing or have changed utterly. He feels cheated and betrayed to the very heart of loss. (p.6) Shakespeare was writing in the tradition of Revenge Tragedy, sometimes referred to as Theatre of the Blood. Elizabethan and Jacobean versions of revenge tragedy borrowed heavily from the tragedies of Seneca (4 BC-65 AD), a Roman dramatist whose tragedies were published in 1581. Seneca, in turn, based his tragedies on Greek mythology and he appeared to have been influenced by Aristotle (384-322 BC). Students should acquaint themselves with the features of these tragedies. Shakespeare borrowed, and indeed transformed his tragedies from the classical form in a number of ways, such as the inclusion of comic elements (comic relief, satire, mocking, parody etc), the common man character and showing on stage acts of violent passion. Shakespeare also appears to have borrowed quite extensively from a contemporary of his, Thomas Kyd (1558-1594) whose revenge tragedy The Spanish Tragedy was not only enormously popular but very influential to all in the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama industry. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead Stoppard has written three, what some would refer to as irreverent, transformations of Shakespeares tragedies: Doggs Hamlet, Cahoots Macbeth and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead. This enterprise is quite audacious as he is not just transforming plays but modern classics. When asked why he chose Hamlet he responded: [Hamlet] is the most famous play in any language, it is part of a sort of common mythology. Stoppard also writes in a tradition; in his case the tradition of the Theatre of the Absurd. The literary term Theatre of the Absurd was coined by the critic Martin Esslin and refers to tendencies in drama to portray life as meaningless and absurd which emerged in Paris in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Absurdist Theatre itself can be seen as a transformation of Dadaism and Surrealism, two early twentieth century aesthetic philosophies which focused on a sense of bewilderment at the violence, depravity, and hopelessness they believed endemic to the human condition in the twentieth century. By challenging conventional theatre and traditional views The Theatre of the Absurd attempted to shock the audience into questioning its own values and assumptions. The drama portrayed was not meant to be regarded in the same terms as realist drama but rather as a drama of ideas. Dramatic features often included meaningless exchanges due to a distrust of language as a means of communication, a por trayal of life as meaningless through a lack of dramatic suspense, abstracted and minimalist settings, comic treatment of traditional themes and a blurring of reality and fiction. There is often a sense of playfulness at times drawing attention to their own artifice. There is also a close link with existentialism. Existentialism is a philosophical movement that explores the question of existence and how it is defined, particularly in a world in which meaning appears to have disappeared. The terrible events of the two World Wars accelerated the waning of religious faith which had started with the Enlightenment. There was a general mood of disillusionment with so called civilized values. The absurd plays of dramatists such as Ionesco, Genet, Beckett and Pinter all depict humanity as bewildered and anxious in the face of a loss of meaning. Stoppard uses Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead as a vehicle to express these ideas and draws upon what is probably Shakespeares most existential work, Hamlet. Hamlets famous To be or not to be speech is the intertextual echo that resounds throughout Stoppards play. Stoppard has also appropriated Becketts influential absurdist play Waiting for Godot. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern mirror the predicament of Vladimir and Estragon, two lost souls waiting for something to happen. They are stranded between modernity and postmodernity. They long for the security of a grand narrative to make sense of their lives but can only engage in futile speculation about the meaning of it all. They are on the verge of a breakthrough to an acceptance of their postmodern condition of fragmentation, but dont quite make it. Stoppards transformation of Hamlet can be seen as a formalized 20th century statement regarding the nature of truth: it is contingent, contextual and ultimately unknowable. This, of course, is Rosencrantz and Guildensterns dilemma; they are trapped in limbo between knowing and not knowing. Stoppard has been criticized for omitting certain scenes (e.g. III, ii and iii) which portray Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in a light other than two bewildered innocents. However it should be remembered Stoppard is interested in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern as victims. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead is his creation. He has taken an idea from Hamlet and developed it dramatically. What he is not interested in is critiquing Hamlet. Students should make lists of the scenes in Hamlet which have been incorporated into Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead, and write down what has been added and what has been changed. Then you should consider how these contribute to Stoppards purpose. Context Hamlet The flourishing of Revenge Tragedy in Shakespeares time was fuelled by the enormous changes taking place in Elizabethan and Jacobean society. His was an age characterized by turmoil and uncertainty. The division of the church in England divided the people into Catholics and Protestants. Religious doubt, albeit carefully disguised, was becoming more prevalent. The consequent unrest and suspicion often resulted in surveillance and betrayal in personal relations as well as in the broader social and political sphere. Assassination attempts on Elizabeth and James resulted in cruel and brutal retaliations. There was also the ever present threat of foreign invasion to add to the feelings of insecurity. Medieval feudalism was in decline, but it was dying a defiant death; the aristocracy resorted to harsh measures to shore up its authority and maintain the hierarchical order which had served it so well. Hamlet dramatically reflects this challenge to tradition, the political instability of his society and the religious questioning. Medieval-renaissance-modern; feudalism-sceptism-humanism-individualism; old world moral absolutes-new world rational scepticism; religious certainties-inner doubt and psychological probing. Humanism and notion of identity. Hamlet asks the modern questions, who am I? and what am I doing here? Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead Stoppard began writing Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead in 1964 and it was first performed in 1966 at the Edinburgh Fringe Theatre. The 20th century, and more specifically the late 20th century, was a time of change and turmoil. The sixties was characterized by an irreverent mood born out of a period of rebellion and challenge to existing structures and beliefs. In all areas of social activity Stoppards society (which is mainly first world, capitalist, democratic and relatively affluent) was undergoing transformation. Many characterize this historical period as the turn on, tune in, drop out generation because of its experimentation with drugs, alternative lifestyles and sexually promiscuous attitudes. Others characterize the sixties as a decade of student political protest. They cite the anti-Vietnam campaigns, nuclear disarmament protests and the Paris student riots as important landmarks in the politicization of young people. The British popular culture scene included television comedy in the form of Monty Pythons Flying Circus and Englands first soap opera Coronation Street, the pop music explosion kick started by the Beatles, stage musicals such as Oliver, Joseph and the Amazing Technicolour Dreamcoat a nd Jesus Christ Superstar. The mood of questioning, rebellion and playfulness can be seen in the way that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead travesties Hamlet; the tragedians, serious in their treatment of Death and holding a mirror up to life in Hamlet are now reduced to comedians and potential pornographers in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead. The treatment of death has also undergone a transformation from the profound to the comic, from high tragedy to slapstick comedy. 20th Century despair-nihilism-death of god-existentialism and the notion of identity-swinging sixties-optimism and disillusionment-modernism-postmodernism-Theatre of the Absurd-nonheroic-Rosencrantz and Guildenstern ask the modern questions, who am I? and what am I doing here? Ideas/Themes Change * Consistency and inconsistency * Tradition and progress Hamlet is about change and transition whereas Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead is about the inability to effect transformation or change. Where Hamlet undergoes a transformation in perspective and acts to influence events, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are seen as impotent little men unable to influence events. Death * What is death? * What is it to die? Throughout literature there is a strong connection between truth and death. The quest for meaning is seen in terms of killing and death. The tragedians offer yet another view: they see death as the climax of great tragedy. Identity The humanist model (see Liberal Humanist reading below) sees Hamlet as epitomizing the human condition. It takes for granted a universalism of human nature and identity which transcends time and place. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern have no fixed identities. Stoppard is exploring the 20th century notion of existentialism which is essentially concerned with the problem of self identity. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern as representatives of the human condition, have no control over their fate and are the victims of arbitrary circumstances. They have no past and no future and only exist through other peoples definitions of them, and are unable to accept the lack of guidance and fashion their own future out of the here and now. Their existential position is echoed throughout the play as they continually try to find an explanation for their existence. In the same way that Hamlet functions as a metaphor for the human condition so do Rosencrantz and Guildenstern represent modern humanitys existential despair. Providence, fate, destiny The notions of free will and determinism are central to both plays. Hamlet has the free will to act but is thwarted by his belief system. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern represent the idea that our lives are predetermined because even though we do have choices in life, we do not have enough information to choose intelligently. Existentialism, religion and the meaning of life Shakespeares England was very religious. The Christian church was an active participant in all areas of social and political life. Hamlet too operates in this Christian context and all events in the play should be regarded in this light; indeed religious belief is often a instigator or inhibitor of dramatic action. The 20th century is often referred to as the century that killed God. In Western society there has been a decline in the number of Christians and of the significance of the church in everyday life. Stoppard evokes the mood of 20th century despair through his appropriation of the philosophical movement called existentialism. By dramatizing the loss of centers resulting in a despairing desire to know and to believe, Stoppard is commenting on the nature of 20th century existence. Appearance and reality, illusion and truth The player in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead says, truth is only that which is taken to be true. Its the currency of living. There may be nothing behind it, but it doesnt make any difference so long as it is honored. One acts on assumptions. Consider the concept of truth as it is dramatically realized in Hamlet. Examine how both plays use things such as imagery, symbols, clothing, the play-within-a-play device, role-playing and language to set up mirrors for reality through which to challenge our notions of illusion and truth. Appearance and reality is a dominant theme in Hamlet and Elizabethan audiences would understand that there is a truth behind the disguise. Rational reason and scientific rationalism Rational reason was the basis of Humanism and was the working philosophy of Shakespeares time. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern attempt to discover patterns and purposes in their existence by use of scientific logic. Theatre as a metaphor for life (and the nature of art) There are several examples in both plays where the boundaries between the actors and the audience are erased. Shakespeare and Stoppard employ metatheatre in order to comment on the analogy between drama and life: both construct realities. Hamlet is a theatrical play. It is about acting and, like Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead is full of theatrical references. Theatrical terminology and imagery abounds, characters act or attempt to act, characters are instructed and instruct others in the art of acting, there are plays within plays and the audience are reminded that it are not only watching a play but that it might be the actors in someone elses play! Both playwrights cleverly use structure and form to draw our attention to the nature of truth and reality. Stoppard himself is acting upon Shakespeares text. Form Hamlet The genre-Tragedy-Revenge Tragedy-Aristotle-Seneca-Elizabethan/Jacobean-Shakespeare Structure-stagecraft-dramatic techniques (ghost, soliloquy, play within a play)-language-imagery-setting Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead The genre, Theatre of the Absurd, modern and postmodern characteristics (pastiche, irony, parody, word games, vaudeville, burlesque, self reflexivity, absence of a frame of reference) Intertextuality (The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T S Eliot and Waiting for Godot, a play by Samuel Beckett about impotence and despair, view of life as hopeless). Prufrock and Godot are both examples of modernist texts where the romantic tragic hero is regarded as a myth. We have the anti-hero or ordinary person on centre stage cut adrift in a drama over which he or she has no control, aimless and looking for direction and speculating about the meaning of it all. Modernism is characterized by nostalgia for the certainty, faith and authority of the past. Thus there is a tone of lament, pessimism and despair. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead is modernist in this sense but there are aspects of postmodernism, e.g. the philosophizing, speculating and agonizing by Hamlet over grand issues (such as meaning of life, death and religion) is treated in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead as farce through the modes of satire, irony, burlesque and parody. Stoppards use of Hamlet is in some ways a postmodern gesture. By appropriating such an iconic text as Hamlet and presenting it from the perspective of peripheral characters and then playing upon them for his own purposes, Stoppard demonstrates that the human experience cannot be fully understood by focusing on the dominant narrative. The depiction of reality as a game or spectacle, the destabilization of identity and the inability of language to offer security of meaning are further pointers to the postmodern condition of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. They are indeed bewildered innocents cast adrift in a disinterested and dispassionate universe. The questioning and dismantling of the individual authorial self conclusively marks the text as a postmodern inquiry into how meaning is constructed. Remember that the vital difference between modernism and postmodernism is that the former laments fragmentation and the latter celebrates it. So be cautious in referring to RG as a postmodern text. It is a modernist text that has some postmodernist characteristics. The intense seriousness of the modernists is diluted by the humor and parody of the postmodernists. Language Hamlet The role of language in Hamlet is to create meaning. It is the utterance of the paragon of animals. It is a sublime human achievement, and indeed Shakespeares language has been valued throughout the centuries as the pinnacle of linguistic artistry. Language in Hamlet expresses beauty, truth and reason as well as being a tool of deception and manipulation. It therefore has transcendent meaning which when analyzed will reveal truth. Traditional criticism, based as it is on Liberal Humanist values, focuses on a universal humanity which can be understood through a close analysis of language and form. In Hamlet we find Shakespeares full repertoire of language skills: verse, prose, formal, colloquial, dialogue, soliloquies, aside, puns, irony, parody, a range of imagery, etc. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead Stoppards language on the other hand expresses the ambiguous nature of truth. There is no underlying fixed meaning in words. The lack of control over their lives is mirrored in the fragmentation of Rosencrantz and Guildensterns language and their persistent use of question. The language games that Rosencrantz and Guildensterns engage in owes an intertextual debt to the influential 20th century philosopher, Ludwig Wittgenstein. Stoppard has appropriated one of Wittgensteins theories of language which essentially states that language cannot express a universal truth. Language resembles moves in a game and outside of the game has no meaning whatsoever. This notion of language having no transcendent value is another point of difference between the two plays. Stoppard also reveals his range of verbal artistry. His play is rich in the playful use of clichÃÆ'Â ©, black humour, irony, puns, burlesque, cultural reference, etc. His use of colloquial and clichÃÆ'Â ©d language to state humankinds existential dilemma serves to undermine the value traditionally attached to Shakespeares elevated poetry. The numinous authority of Shakespeares language is thus deflated. Notwithstanding all this, we should never lose sight of the fact that Stoppard is a playwright and his intention is to entertain us. Stoppards style, especially his humor, wit and comedic timing, is the means by which the bleakness of Rosencrantz and Guildensterns (and by analogy our own) predicament is made palatable through the medium of drama. Readings The audience response to both texts is determined by values, culture and context. Remember, our course this semester has focused on a study of the language of texts, consideration of purposes and audiences, and analysis of the content, values and attitudes conveyed through a range of readings. With that in mind, you need to understand the following critical approaches and acquaint yourselves with the theoretical principles underpinning each of the approaches. * Traditional Criticism which is based upon a Liberal Humanist approach. * Modern Criticism which is based upon a Post-structuralist and New Historicist approach. The essential difference between the two approaches is that the first tends to focus on character and the universality of the human condition and the latter emphasizes the influence of context and the application of theory to the process of reading.

My New Dog Neechi :: Essays Papers

My New Dog Neechi The time I got my first new dog, Neechie, from the Clarion Humane Society was real joy. I remember making the phone call to the Humane Society in Clarion, Pennsylvania, on July 5, 1994. I had just asked the volunteer worker who answered the phone, â€Å"Do you have a little dog there that needs a loving and caring home?† She said that they had just received a little puppy a few days before. My heart leaped in my chest. I was so excited that I wanted to get there as fast as I could. My friend and I drove off in my car to the Humane Society so fast that I did not notice anyone or anything from my house to our destination. It was like we were traveling at the speed of light. We were at my house; then instantly we were there! As I pulled into the parking lot, I saw the large cement building. It looked so cold and expressionless, and I barely noticed the small, old, ragged sign that hung between two poles about four feet off the ground. â€Å"Definitely not hip on the advertising, † I thought to myself. Then all sorts of thoughts came over me like a rushing river. I was so excited and so happy. I felt heroic because I was going to save a little dog, from â€Å"The Pound,† as some people would say. I don’t like that term, but I soon understood it after I entered the building. The first thing I remember was the smell. It was like a still stagnant pond, almost lifeless and algae ridden as if it could not breathe and needed a refreshing rainfall to bring life back into it again. The sounds I heard were of rattling metal and clanging noises from the dogs and cats pawing at their cages and tipping over their dishes with excitement and hopes of a new and loving home where they would feel safe and loved. Oh, how my heart ached as I looked around at wall-to-wall cages filled with wagging tails and exultant eyes. After the initial shock of it all, my thoughts went back to my little puppy. The volunteer greeted me happily and led me to a little room where the small dogs were kept. There she was I saw her right away! She sat so still and patient, her little black nose almost touching the cage bars.

Apush Notes: Great Depression

A. The Great Depression was caused by an economic system out of balance. There was too much supply with little demand. This situation was created by monopoly pricing, unsound banking practices, overproduction, high tariffs, and tightening of money supply by Federal Reserve Board. B. A slump in economic activity with over speculation in stock and buying stocks on margin caused the stock market to crash in October 1929. The stock market crash marked the beginning of Great Depression. C.The Depression was characterized by high unemployment, foreclosures on homes, farms and businesses, closing of banks, and the drying up of credit, low purchasing power, and hunger. Many people grew concern that capitalism had failed and democracy couldn’t provide solutions to problems. D. President Hoover, a strong advocate of â€Å"rugged individualism† believed in minimal government interference to deal with Depression. He based his policy upon supplying optimism, expanding works, and loa ning money and struggling banks.E. In 1932 summer, 20000 impoverished veterans from the First World War marched on Washington demanding early payment of a financial bonus that was due in 1945. After the bonus failed in Congress, President Hoover ordered the US army to evacuate the marching veterans from DC. The army, led by Douglas MacArthur, drove the veterans out. The armies’ handling the Bonus March ended Hoover’s chance for reelection and fostered a growing fear of revolution in America. F.President Hoover and his Republicans were blamed for Depression in election of 1932. Franklin Roosevelt was elected president, promising to save capitalism, help common man, and to provide work. Roosevelt was vague on his plans, except he would try anything. G. FDR’s plan to get nation out of Depression was called the New Deal. New Deal had policies of relief for the poor, recovery from Depression, and reform of the economic system. The first New Deal as passed during the first 100 days of his presidency.The left wing of politics liked the idea and passed the idea through Congress. Economy fell back into recession. Black Tuesday The day the stock market crashed. No buyers. Rugged individualism Social outlook promoting one’s goals and desires of independence. Hooverville This name was based on Hoover’s blame for depression. Families lost their homes because they couldn’t pay mortgages. Hawley-Smoot Tariff, 1930 Tax increase by Republican congress.Purpose was to satisfy US business leaders who a higher tariff would protect their markets from foreign competition. In retaliation, European countries made higher tariffs against US goods which reduced trade. Reconstruction Finance Corporation To prop up faltering railroads, banks, life insurance companies, and other financial institutions. Emergency loans would stabilize these businesses. The benefits would go down to smaller businesses and bring recovery. Democrats scoffed at this meas ure, saying it would only help the rich.

A Man of Controversy, essays

A Man of Controversy, essays The support given by United States rulers is rather in the nature of the support a rope gives a hanged man. These were words once uttered from the mouth of the Soviet Unions most ambitious and successful ruler, Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev. Khrushchev was a man that took over power in the Soviet Union very soon after Stalins death; despite his overt criticism of the United States, he was the first ruler to actually believe that the West and the Soviet Union could get along peacefully. Despite being ousted from power by some of his most trusted followers, Khrushchev was perhaps the reason why the Russians and the Americans get along as well as they do today. His backward thinking started a new era for Communism; he led them to glory that was only deserving of the Soviet Union. Khrushchev was born into a very poor family located in Kalinovka, near the village of Kursk in southwestern Russia. His grandfather had worked as a serf and his father worked as a peasant and as a miner. Khrushchev received very little education in schools because his family needed him to work on the family farm. After only about eight years of education, Khrushchev dropped out of school to herd his familys cattle. He later became a pipe fitter in a coalmine in the Donets Basin, which is near present-day Ukraine. He soon joined the Bolshevik Communist Party in 1918, and he served in the Red Army as a junior political officer in Russian Civil War from 1918-1921. After the civil war, he returned to Ukraine and he began working as the assistant manager of a coalmine back in the Donets Basin. Khrushchev moved to Moscow in 1929 to go to school at the Stalin Industrial Academy, where he became the leader of the academys Communist Party organization. Khrushchev then began to work full time as a secretary of the Communist Party in Moscow. Under the tutelage of Lazar Kaganovich, who was the first secretary ...

How to Use Chou in French Conversation

How to Use Chou in French Conversation If youre talking about cabbage in French, then youre going to need to know how to use the word  chou.  Pronounced shoo, the word  chou  can be used to describe a cabbage or as a term of endearment akin to darling or dear. Using  Chou  in Conversation As a vegetable, chou can be served grated raw in a salad, boiled then creamed with bacon bits, stuffed with milk-soaked bread, sausage, eggs, vegetables, and herbs or baked in a cabbage galette with herbs and lardons (hearty French smoked bacon). But, really, the options are only limited by the culinary imagination of Frances  talented regional and restaurant cooks. The use as a term of endearment  may derive from the pretty, frilly, green, slightly delicate Savoy cabbage that the French have a certain affection for. On va manger du chou. Were going to eat some cabbage.Salade de chou rouge  est un excellent example de la cuisine minceur de  Michel Guà ©rard. Red cabbage salad is an excellent example of [chef] Michel Guà ©rards slimming cuisine.Ça va mon [petit] chou? How are you, my darling (my sweet)? Related Words There are a number of related words with chou as their root, for example: un chouchou darling, pet  chouchouter (informal) to pamper, coddle  la choucroute sauerkraut (brine-marinated cabbage)les choux de Bruxelles Brussels sprouts These root  words also wind up in some common French expressions, such as: à ªtre dans les choux (informel) to be screwed up, lost, in trouble  faire chou blanc to draw a blank, to lead nowhereCest chou vert et vert chou.   Its green cabbage and cabbage green. [meaning, roughly: Its the same either way.] Additional Resources As you expand your  vocabulary, youll want to learn more ways to talk about food with your loved ones. French terms of endearmentFood in French

Lesson 7 discussion & Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lesson 7 discussion & - Assignment Example Devendra Banharts song touch upon his own reflections of the past, including the themes of social inequality. Willy Masons lyrics, just as that of Bob Dylan, are often focused on issues of tensions between social classes, poverty and existential problems, such as loneliness and senselessness of the modern way of life of an ordinary man. Beth Orton reminds me of Joan Baez with both her style of singing and subjects that her lyrics is focused on. She often sings of love and failed relationships between a man and a woman. I do not agree with Pete Seegers statement according to which folk magazines have to print the best rap songs. Although, the origins of rap root to American hip hop, which, in turn, is in incorporates some distinct features of traditional music of African American people. At first glance rap and hip hop have nothing to do with folk at all. In fact, these are different musical styles and genres. Unlike folk, rap is more of spoken word poetry with a monotonous rhythmic music on the background, where lyrics lie at the heart of every song and the role of music itself is neglected, though there are certain criteria to it among rap artists. Rap culture was initially widely spread in urban areas among African Americans, although today the situation has changed and the genre found its audience among other social and racial groups. Folk, to the contrary, rooted from suburban and countryside areas populated by white communities. On the other hand, comparing rap and folk Pete Seeger believed that there are more similarities in these two genres than differences. In fact, the way lyrics plays a the most important role in each and every rap song, touching upon social and existential issues, has a strong resemblance with the style and spirit of folk music, not to mention the historical implications of the development of rap genre. In spite of similar subjects that both rap and folk tend to

TCP - People Resourcing and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

TCP - People Resourcing and Development - Essay Example HRM of public sector may be out of control of the costs spent on this and can offer only those rewards that are alternative to the commercial ones. Overell (2003) observes that in such fields as health and education, both push and pull factors are significant, while in governance, extensive use of the agency workforce is mainly caused by internal functional mismanagement, or â€Å"functional turnover† (Torrington et.al. 2008, p. 197). One more factor is merely mentioned with only superficial description: it is systematic change that could have balancing impact on public health sector (Overell 2003). In fact this means that an entire culture of service should be changed. Redman and Wilkinson (2009) are more specific about this situation in public sector (which may also apply to education): â€Å"a healthcare provision has changed from being a citizen’s right to a customer service †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p.5). Accordingly, health care specialists show less orientation toward work ethics and more self-evaluation in terms of market than they did before. This tendency may be the main factor that forced the authors of the article to unite so different public sector careers as health care and governance in one â€Å"problem†. A 2008 review of the agency working in the UK by EMAR (Employment Market Analysis and Research) reveals that the wages of agency workers tend to be the same or lower than those of full time employees (p.7); that, furthermore, 63% of all agency workers chose this type of occupation because there were no other employment opportunities, and it was only below a third of them that actually did not want a permanent job (p. 13); and that 50% of agency workers â€Å"would accept their temporary job on a permanent basis† (p. 16). This means that working for agencies is actually not a privilege, as suggested by the article, but rather a necessity for good many workers. At the same time, according to the EMAR report,